¿puedes Diseñar Un Servicio?

Transcript

CAN YOU DESIGN A SERVICE? INDHOLD Why service design? international Benchmarks case: aarhus citizen services case: the good kindergarten methods approach 01 / 02 / 03 / 04 / 05 / 06 / 07 19 27 45 61 81 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 “DENmARk SH bE AmONG tHE IN tHE wORLD At USING DESIG fOR DEVELOpIN pRODUCtS AND SERVICES.” HALL E bESt D GN NG D 00 / tHE GOVERNmENt denmark the service sector accounts for more than 75% of employment in the western world, and this figure is increasing. Our economies are dependent on services like never before. As citizens and consumers, we are increasingly demanding unique and efficient services, regardless of whether these are provided by the public or private sectors. However, companies’ innovation processes are still geared towards material products. today, innovation and services are two distinct areas. wHY SERVICE DESIGN? 01/ 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 “pOtENtIALS I SERVICE SECtO bE REALISED If ARE AbLE tO D NEw AND INN SERVICES tHAt USERS. SERVIC wILL bECOmE mOSt ImpORtA ACHIEVING tHI IN tHE OR CAN ONLY f COmpANIES DEVELOp NOVAtIVE t mOtIVAtE CE DESIGN ONE Of tHE ANt wAYS Of IS.” 01 / pOUL-ERIk pEDERSEN chairman, the danish chamBer oF commerce a service is a complex system of elements and networks that the user meets and interacts with over a period of time. these elements include everything from players (e.g. insurance agents, customer advisers or legislators) and tangible items (e.g. work tools) to institutions (e.g. banks or authorities) and the systems that underpin them (e.g. it systems or temp contracts). these networks can be virtual (e.g. websites) or tangible (e.g printed matter) or consist of face-to-face interaction. Why service design? 01 / SERVICE DESIGN CAN bE USED tO DEVELOp NEw SERVICE SOLUtIONS tHAt CREAtE ADDED VALUE fOR tHE USERS AND COmpEtItIVE ADVANtAGE fOR tHE pROVIDERS design is a discipline which, in a historic perspective, is all about adding a functional and/or aesthetic value to products. today, design is increasingly about creating experiences, through the provision of services, for instance. users’ expectations and demands for unique and qualitative services in the private and public sectors increasingly mean that there is a competitive parameter as well. at the same time, there is an increasing need for services that don’t just fulfil basic needs but also create added value – for example, by stimulating a feeling of peace of mind, loyalty, profit, empathy, social cohesion etc. the complexity and diversity of the new challenges facing companies also means that new methods and competences are required to solve these problems. service design both reflects and accommodates this development. what is a service? We come across services every day in a multitude of situations: When we go to the launderette, to the cinema, to the doctor or when we use online banking or eat at a restaurant. a service is an intangible product that takes place over a period of time. you can’t own a service in the same way that you own a product. unlike physical products, a service is created and consumed in the instant it is used. a service requires the participation of the individual who is receiving it. in that respect, a service represents a relationship or a set of relationships. thus, a service consists of a number of different elements and networks that the user comes across and interacts with over a period of time. these networks function as a means of communication between the user and the provider of a service. together, this whole system of relationships between the user and the provider, places and objects, processes and networks, represents a ’service ecology’. an air flight is an example of a complex service ecology. the flight itself represents the core service, whilst the ticket sale, supply of information, organization, personnel etc are all points of contact that the consumer has to the actual product. even though it is essential that the customer gets from a to B on time, it is often the meeting with the various points of contact that creates a good or bad experience. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 pARADIGm SHIft products versus services industry agriculture pOSt-INDUStRIAL SOCIEtY object Function mono consumers static ownership standard central tangible relations experience hybrid co-creators dynamic access personal de-centralised intangible service Why service design? 01 / pEOpLE HAVE bEEN DESIGNING SERVICES fOR SEVERAL DECADES. tHE DIffERENCE NOw IS tHAt EXpECtAtIONS AND DEmANDS HAVE RISEN DRAmAtICALLY – AND CONSEQUENtLY wE ARE EXpERIENCING tHAt mANY SERVICES ARE EItHER OUtDAtED, pOOR OR SImpLY NONEXIStENt. tHIS SItUAtION REQUIRES NEw SOLUtIONS AND A NEw AppROACH today, most high income countries – denmark included – are described as post-industrial. this means that our economy is no longer based on the production and sale of material objects, but on knowledge and services. the economies of post-industrial countries are called service economies because the vast majority of the countries’ turnover and revenue comes from the service sector. it is also the sector in which most people work. For instance, in banks, insurance companies, the tourist industry, entertainment industry, and within the fields of education, health and research. one of the characteristics of a post-industrial society is that our basic and material needs are no longer a goal in themselves. most of us have products such as furniture, televisions, kitchen equipment, computers and so on. in other words, our basic and material needs have been fulfilled and therefore our demand for, and expectations of immaterial services are greater than ever before – regardless of whether these are provided by the public or the private sector. at the same time, increased global competition has meant that many industries are experiencing a fierce battle for customers. the products are almost identical, so added value and positions have to be created through services that extend beyond the core product. this development is evident in the airline industry, for example, where air-mile schemes, the option of choosing your seat online, electronic check-in and a host of other services make it cheaper and easier to travel – in turn creating greater customer loyalty. paradigm shift the transformation from an agricultural and industrial to a post-industrial society has meant that there has been a number of cultural and sociological paradigm shifts. one of the central shifts is that, to some extent, we have moved away from demarcated, stable communities with well-defined roles and functions to more fluid communities and a need for continually creating and recreating our role/s and identity/ies. as part of this development, we are increasingly seeing ourselves as creative cocreators of the experiences, relations and objects that constitute our everyday life. in other words, we are active ’prosumers’ rather than passive consumers. this happens when, for instance, in a furniture shop, we design the motif on our new chair ourselves. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 ‘fRONt StAGE’ ‘bACk StAGE’ design the contact points Where redesign the underlying service consumers meet a service provision processes the good service experience can be created in several ways. either by focusing on the actual interaction between the user and the service provider and (re)designing the points of contact through which the user experiences a service. or, by changing the underlying processes that lead to the production of a service. Finally, by creating completely new forms of service that reflect new social trends and opportunities, for example, within the field of technology. design a service on the Basis oF social trends Why service design? 01 / SERVICE DESIGN IS A SYStEmAtIC AND CREAtIVE AppROACH tO INNOVAtION. VALUE IS CREAtED bY tAkING INtERACtION bEtwEEN tHE USER AND tHE SERVICE pROVIDER, AND IDENtIfICAtION Of pRObLEmS AS A StARtING pOINt AND tRANSfORmING tHESE INtO OppORtUNItIES AND NEw SOLUtIONS it is easier for a service to accommodate this shift. a service is more dynamic and flexible than a physical product, which is final in its form. services are more flexible since they change whilst they are being delivered. therefore, service design is all about transforming the relevant social trends into completely new solutions. How is a service designed? a service can be broken down into basic elements. it consists of a ’front stage’ (the user) and a ’back stage’ (the provider) - and a number of material and immaterial elements and points of contact between the user and the provider. the service provider’s ideas on how a service or a product should be used do not always correspond with those of the user, therefore, the service design process is based on mapping-out the various relations and points of contact in order to identify those areas in the service process that do not meet the user’s expectations, dreams, needs and everyday life. this methodic approach means that problems and opportunities that are not visible before the process materialise along the way. it is an approach that leads to radical new and innovative solutions or improvements to existing services. it is important to design services that appeal to both users and providers and that relate to the everyday life of both parties. during the service design process, a number of different methods are used as tools to help choose the ultimate design direction. these include techniques to assess the original idea for the service against the final service design and subsequently, prepare a business case. one of the parameters for selecting a solution is the short and long-term income and costs involved. a service lives on after it has been designed. good service design should comply with a plethora of factors to ensure that the solution is sustainable and profitable, Besides the financial bottom line, it typically also involves creating social and environmental value and ensuring increased customer loyalty. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 it is by identifying the difference between the user’s expectations of a service prior to them coming face to face with it and their actual experience of the service that its overall quality can be determined. a high level of quality is another manifestation of a good service experience. any difference between expectations and experience can give an indication of whether there is any potential in creating a good service experience by focusing on the expectations of a service before it is actually provided. fORVENtNING fORVENtNING fORVENtNING EXpECtAtION SERVICEmØDE SERVICEmØDE SERVICEmØDE SERVICEmEEtING OpLEVEt kVALItEt OpLEVEt kVALItEt OpLEVEt kVALItEt QUALItY EXpERIENCED OpLEVELSE OpLEVELSE OpLEVELSE & EffEkt & EffEkt EXpERIENCE & EffEkt AND EffECt Why service design? 01 / Up tO NOw, fEw bUSINESSES HAVE REGARDED tHE SERVICE INDUStRY AS AN AREA Of INNOVAtION. HOwEVER, AS COmpANIES wAkEN Up tO tHE mASSIVE pOtENtIAL It OffERS, OVER tHE COmING YEARS DEmAND fOR SERVICE DESIGN COmpEtENCES wILL bE HUGE who designs a service? service design is carried out by a team consisting of several different competences: anthropologists, ethnologists, concept designers, interaction designers, product designers, economists and so on. the composition of these competences is dependent on the nature and scope of the task in hand. it is not unusual for several companies to collaborate on performing a service design task. however, the most important people in the development of service design solutions are the users, so consequently they are always involved as more or less active co-creators throughout the whole design development process. not least, it is crucial that users are involved in order to qualify problems and solutions before the final service solution is launched. Furthermore, several other interested parties are involved, for example, customers, interest organisations and experts in the field, as an integral part of the process. all of this is done to ensure optimal accuracy of fire. the need for design competences despite the obvious advantages and need, there is still only a handful of companies – private and public sector – that have a conscious, strategic and innovative approach to services. however, several companies have gradually begun to waken up to how the use of service design competences can meet these needs. therefore, service design is a growing discipline all over the world, and developments in the field are being seen in the uk and usa in particular. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 In 2007, Apple changed its name from Apple Computer Inc, to Apple Inc. this was in recognition of the fact the company’s development potential no longer lies in isolated products, but in productservice systems. INtERNAtIONAL CASES 02/ keep the change, national Bank oF america itunes store, apple inc. cluB china, klm greenWheels, holland Future currents, British design council amBient experience radiology suite / kitten scanner, philips 20 21 22 23 24 25 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 case kEEp tHE CHANGE NAtIONAL bANk Of AmERICA 2006 Service design can result in new and innovative products, new business areas and greater customer loyalty. young american mothers have traditionally found it difficult to save money, but with the help of an innovative service concept, it has become a bit easier. keep the change is the name of a new type of bank card that rounds an amount up to the nearest dollar every time a purchase is made. the difference between the two amounts is subsequently transferred automatically to the user’s savings account. keep the change was developed by the design company ideo for national Bank of america. the concept was created on the basis of a lengthy period of field work, where the design team observed and mapped out the habits and needs of young mothers in order to identify new areas of opportunity. the card quickly became a great success, and at the beginning of 2007, 2.5 million customers had signed up for the scheme, including 700,000 new customers. international cases 02 / case ItUNES StORE AppLE INC. 2003 In 2007, Apple changed its name from Apple Computer Inc, to Apple Inc. this was in recognition of the fact the company’s development potential no longer lies in isolated products, but in product-service systems. perhaps apple’s most successful service concept is the itunes store. Whereas in recent decades the established music industry has focused on limiting file sharing, apple have taken the opposite approach and been able to see the opportunities afforded by digital network media and paved the way for a new business model that meets the needs of users. on a global scale, today, itunes store accounts for more than 80% of online music sales. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 case CLUb CHINA kLm 2006 the web 2.0 phenomenon was popularised long ago. Nevertheless, many companies still haven‘t woken up to the potential in associating social networking services with their core products. in 2006, the dutch airline, klm, introduced the network concept, club china, geared towards the increasing number of business people who travel to china on business. via a website, members can register their calendar and travel information, for instance, and consequently make contact with other like-minded travelers who will find themselves in the same place at the same time. the objective of club china is to establish contact between member who wish to share their knowledge and experiences. today, the club has more than 3,000 members and klm has since developed two similar concepts club africa and golf club. Foto: capital Fotos international cases 02 / case GREENwHEELS HOLLAND 1995 In a world in which consideration for the environment plays a central role in what consumers choose and reject, sustainability and operating a business should not be regarded as a conflict of interests but rather as an opportunity. greenwheels is a dutch car-sharing service which has been a huge success since it was launched in the middle of the nineties. subscribers can book cars by telephone or via the internet, where an interactive map shows where the nearest car is to be found. the booking process takes, on average, under a minute. greenwheels has several dedicated parking spaces in central location in towns and cities, which has clear advantages in cities like amsterdam where it is expensive to park – if you can find a parking space at all. as an extra incentive, greenwheels gives subscribers a discount if, at the same time, they have an annual travel card for the national transport system, ns. in 2004, greenwheels expanded to germany. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 case fUtURE CURRENtS bRItISH DESIGN COUNCIL 2006 we are surrounded by systems and products that don’t function optimally, but that we have gotten used to nevertheless. Service design can be used to examine and challenge our patterns of behaviour – not necessarily to create products or services, but to create new ways of using them. a third of co2 emissions in the uk come from ordinary homes. therefore, the British design council has initiated a project, the objective of which is to help households reduce their energy consumption and, consequently, their co2 emissions. the result was ten different concepts that will attempt to solve the problem by making their energy consumption more transparent and visible. one of the concepts consists of an energy statement that, among other things, illustrates your consumption in comparison with other households. international cases 02 / case AmbIENt EXpERIENCE RADIOLOGY SUItE/ kIttEN SCANNER pHILIpS 2005 Experience design is often associated with positive situations like cultural and tourism experiences. However, it is also about minimising the impact of negative experiences, for instance, if we become ill. a trip to the hospital is rarely a pleasant experience. especially not for children who quickly become afraid when they are away from their usual surroundings. approximately a third of children who undergo a ct scan become anxious and have to have the scan redone, which reduces certainty and can result in six to eight hours extra work for hospital staff. to help tackle this problem, philips have developed the kitten scanner concept, which gives children an opportunity to play with a miniature ct scanner and a stuffed toy before they are scanned themselves. the objective is to demystify the process, thereby putting the child’s mind at ease. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 It is about more than simply minimizing queues and conveying the right information. modern citizen services are based on the citizen’s life situation and communicate them with them at eye level both online and in physical spaces. case AARHUS CItIzEN SERVICES 03/ introduction research analysis developing the idea and concept co-serving result 29 33 35 37 39 41 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: aarhus citizen services 03/ INtRODUCtION what characterises an optimal citizen service? And how is it created? Aarhus municipality came to 1508 with an interesting challenge: Design a new citizen service concept that both meets the citizens’ demands with regard to peace of mind and efficiency and motivates them to help themselves via the municipality’s self-service solutions. the task together with the design company 3part, we were given the task of developing the strategic frameworks for a new citizen service concept in aarhus municipality. the task encompassed subsequent execution in the form of visual identity, determining the physical lay-out of two citizen service centres and marketing. background citizen services is a public service that assembles all the services that most citizens need in one place. in so doing, the citizens of the municipality only need to refer to one place. in the citizen services centre you can obtain information and guidance on public services, pick up forms or find information on everything from tax deduction cards and change of address forms to housing benefits, medical insurance or signing up for day institutions. Success criteria the objective of the project was to create a cohesive service concept that takes the citizen’s life situation rather than the public sector’s organisational structure as its starting point. one of aarhus municipality’s success criteria was, for instance, that within a short space of time its citizens should, take to the new service and that a large number of them would graduate from being served by others to serving themselves. Cooperation partner the project was carried out in collaboration with the danish design company 3part, who specialise in industrial design and service solutions. Research and analysis the project started off by defining the actual concept of citizen services, which includes form of service, service areas and communication with the rest of the organisation. the target group’s needs were analysed and compared with existing experiences with the field of citizen services. among other things, the project team carried out field work around denmark in order to observe how other municipalities facilitated interaction with their citizens. on the basis of the observations and analyses, we developed a number of archetypal citizens – called ‘personas’. these personas served as a central tool for both development of the design and preparation of the service concept. case: aarhus citizen services 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: Århus Borgerservice 03/ Concept on the basis of the insight obtained from the field work, we started developing the actual concept of citizen services in aarhus. the concept is based on the citizens’ central demands for peace of mind, efficiency and speed – online and whwnever citizens physically come face to face with the municipality. central to the service concept is the notion of ‘coservice’ which we developed as phase between service and self-service. our analyses showed that a large group of citizens were motivated to use self-service solutions, but didn’t actually use them, either on the grounds of uncertainty or lack of it skills. through ‘co-service’, the municipality employees help the individual citizen to serve him/herself until they feel confident enough to take the step towards full self-service. Visual identity visually, the concept consists of distinct colours, ‘strips’ containing handwriting and pictures of people, all of which the observer comes into eye contact with. the objective of the visual identity was to create a striking and eye-catching design that citizens would experience as reliable and accommodating. one of the principle ideas behind the use of handwriting is to show flexibility and distinction. therefore, arabic handwriting is also part of the identity. Both in terms of the visual design and layout of the two citizen service centres, we put particular emphasis on making them personal and accommodating. this was with a view to creating a sense of equal and personal communication - communication at eye level, which is informal without being frivolous. Layout in terms of the centres’ layout, we worked on a solution that appears both inviting and understandable for the citizen while accommodating the needs of municipality employees. the citizen should feel welcome and be able to find their way round easily – and the employee should be able to work efficiently in a pleasant working environment. therefore, the following key words, in order of priority, were fundamental when it came to the layout centres: 1) hospitality. 2) anchor – there must be a focal point. 3) Quality = reliability. 4) orientation (signify by using objects, not signs). 5) Waiting-time content (fitting-out of the centres should send out a signal that waiting time can be used both practically and for relaxation, depending on the citizen’s needs – it should also be possible to integrate both case handling and self-service in the waiting time). the service areas are divided into zones which reflect the needs of the target group: the ’Quick zone’ (sales of passports, driving licences, bus tickets), the ‘learning zone’ (pcs for service and co-service) and the ’case handling zone’. With regard to employees, experience has shown that citizen services cannot be a success without the backing of personnel. therefore, we moved the busy and seasonally-determined counters to the front of the room so as not to disturb those employees dealing with cases that took a while longer. additionally, offices were laid out in such a way as to allow a high degree of knowledgesharing. the layout of the offices incorporates a ‘citizen-free’ area where employees can relax in peace and quiet. marketing the development of the strategy, concept, identity and fitting-out was followed up by strategies for marketing, evaluation and influence of the citizens’ choice of channel. one of the goals was to increase the use of digital self-service options among target groups - those who already used the internet a lot - and moreover, to motivate those target groups who are a bit hesitant about digital self-service. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: aarhus citizen services 03/ case: aarhus citizen services RESEARCH the project team visited a number of citizen service centres around Denmark and conducted interviews and made observations, all of which were documented in the form of photos, sketches, notes and video. both citizens and employees participated. the objective was to gain an insight into how other municipalities facilitate interaction with the citizen. Subsequently, employees and citizens in Aarhus municipality became involved in the form of interviews and workshops with a view to obtaining a picture of what characterises their everyday situation and their experiences, needs and aspirations with regard to providing and receiving citizen services respectively. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 ”wHERE DO I GO?” the lack of a visual identity creates confusion ”wHAt If I NEED tO SEE AbOUt mORE tHAN ONE tHING?” the numbering system is too complicated and does not necessarily fit in with the citizens’ situations ”SHOULD OtHERS bE AbLE tO fOLLOw mY pRIVAtE LIfE?” signs above case handling booths highlight differences between citizens customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: aarhus citizen services 03/ case: aarhus citizen services ANALYSIS the whole service was mapped out taking the user as a starting point. this mapping-out clearly illustrated a number of problems that were specifically centred on the meeting between the actual citizen service and the employees’ working day. the various types of citizen were grouped according to their needs, situation and motivation and were transformed into ‘personas’. the problems and personas pointed the way forward to opportunities for improving citizen services. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: aarhus citizen services 03/ DEVELOpING tHE IDEA AND CONCEpt Development of both the visual design and the physical layout was done in close cooperation with citizens and employees. personas, association cards and role playing were all used as a means of developing the layout and service concepts. case: aarhus citizen services 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: aarhus citizen services 03/ case: aarhus citizen services CO-SERVICE the idea of ‘co-service’ is central to the ultimate concept of citizen services. Co-service is a phase between service and self-service that meets the citizen’s needs for gradually being able to serve themselves. the layout of the citizen service centres has been designed so that it appears both inviting and understandable for the citizen while, at the same time, meeting the needs of municipal employees for being able to work efficiently in a good working environment. citizens come face to face with human beings rather than machines. the service areas are divided into zones which reflect the needs of citizens: the ‘Quick zone’, the ‘learning zone’ and the ‘case handling zone’. the needs of employees have been met by moving the busy and seasonally-determined service desks to the front of the room so as not to disturb cases that take a while longer. the lay-out of the office is such that it allows a high degree of knowledge-sharing, and a ‘citizen-free’ area has been established where employees can relax in peace and quiet once in a while. the visual identity is based on distinctive colours and photographic portraits where eye contact is established. Besides exuding flexibility and distinction, the concept helped ensure that citizen services quickly established its own identity and did not inherit the slightly outmoded image normally associated with municipal services. part of the concept for the visual identity is based on communicating in languages other than danish, which is in line with aarhus municipality’s vision of being accommodating and meeting its citizens at eye level. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 customer: aarhus municipality year: 2006 case: aarhus citizen services 03/ case: aarhus citizen services RESULt A survey carried out by Epinion in April 2007 shows that 91% of Aarhus municipality citizens overall are either satisfied or very satisfied with their visit to to the Citizen Services centre – and that the users’ satisfaction with the service provided by its personnel tops 95%. the figures exceeded the expectations that were envisaged when the project was in development. then, one of the targets was that, within the first year of operation, 70% of citizens should find the Citizen Service centres easy to use and feel that they were offered a decent service. 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 “USING SERVIC ENAbLES YOU EXACtLY wHA YOUR CUStOmE If YOU wANt t mONEY, YOU m wHAt YOUR CU NEED.” CE DESIGN tO UNCOVER At NEEDS ERS HAVE. tO mAkE mUSt pROVIDE UStOmERS 03 / pIA bECH mAtHIESEN design manager at dsB At ‘the Good kindergarten’ it is not just about looking after children and developing their social skills. It is also about considering the needs of parents with regard to peace of mind, personalisation and participation case tHE GOOD kINDERGARtEN 04/ introduction research analysis developing the idea and concept result ready start smart pulse 47 51 53 55 57 58 59 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 7 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ INtRODUCtION what makes a good kindergarten? Countless projects have shown the importance of good physical frameworks, teaching practices and a healthy working climate in creating a good kindergarten. but few have viewed kindergartens as a service for parents. So we did. the task in partnership with copenhagen living lab, we carried out the good kindergarten project for the danish enterprise and construction authority. the idea behind the task was to examine the everyday lives of children, teachers and parents in a danish kindergarten. the objective was to identify and describe what creates the experience of quality - and how a core welfare service such as childcare can be improved. the subsequent goal was to develop a number of ideas and implementable concepts that would help solve some of the problems faced by kindergartens and parents. background the good kindergarten is one of two pilot projects that demonstrate how service design can be used to create a better public service. the pilot proojects are the first of a series of demonstration projects that the danish enterprise and construction authority has developed in connection with the government’s grand efforts to make denmark a leading design nation. Success criteria the danish enterprise and construction authority laid down a number of success criteria for the pilot project which set the frameworks for the task in general and the ultimate solutions in particular. the success criteria were that the solutions should be costneutral and generalisable and that they should be capable of being implemented within a short time-frame. Cooperation partner the project was carried out in collaboration with copenhagen living lab, a consultancy firm that specialises in the uncovering of needs and analysis of people’s everyday lives with the aim of identifying opportunities for innovation. copenhagen institute of interaction design (cid) served as a sparring partner during the process. Finally, the danish enterprise and construction authority and copenhagen municipality were active participants in and contributors to the project. Research the research phase consisted of desk research and field work. the desk research work included the gathering and appropriation of knowledge in the field of childcare, perspectives on quality in childcare and social trends related to family life and the provision of public services. Fieldwork consisted of participant observation and semi-structured interviews. case: the good kindergarten 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 7 03 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ Life as a parent together with copenhagen living lab, we followed four kindergarten families over a period of two weeks and gained an insight into their everyday lives which we then mapped out. this mapping-out of the families’ lives encompassed the typical day of the children and the parents in the morning, afternoon and evening periods and the childrens’ day at the kindergarten from when they were dropped off until they were collected. Life at kindergarten We participated in the everyday life of the kindergarten and observed relationships and activities. teachers were interviewed and followed in the daily activities from the moment the kindergarten opened until it closed, and we interviewed both teachers and management about their views on what characterises a typical working day and life in the kindergarten and on how they viewed childcare in general. Life in the municipality We interviewed officials from copenhagen municipality’s child and youth administration about their views on the kindergarten as a welfare service and were thereby able to obtain a political-administrative perspective on the subject. the interviews with the officials also gave us an insight into the world of copenhagen institutions and childcare and the practices and conceptions that apply there. Analysis: 12 problems the research phase gave us a picture of what functions well and functions not so well, and the needs and expectations that characterise the various core users – namely, the parents. on the basis of these insights, we identified a total of 12 main conclusions and problems, each of which contained potentials and opportunities for rethinking and improving the service experienced by users. the conclusions and problems fell into three categories: 1. the parents’ experience of the kindergarten/ childcare in general (’front stage’). 2. the parents’ contact with the kindergarten (points of contact). 3. the teachers’ working day (‘back stage’). the projects frameworks meant that ‘weighty’ problems, such as sickness and stress were assigned a lower priority in the subsequent process of developing the idea and concept. Result the project resulted in two concepts, both containing a number of individual ideas. one of the concepts focused on matching the parents’ expectations to the reality of the kindergarten. the framework for the concept is a suitcase, which the parents receive when the child enrols. the suitcase symbolises the journey through kindergarten upon which the child and his/her parents are about to embark. Besides having a symbolic and practical value, the suitcase contains a number of objects that inform the parent of the kindergarten’s cultural codes and rules. this information is aimed at preventing future communication breakdowns between parents and the kindergarten. the second concept is about meeting the parents’ basic needs for following the child’s life at kindergarten and being a ‘fly on the wall’. the concept introduces a number of elements that make it easier for the parents to get a concrete insight into what is going on between the hours when the child is dropped off and collected. the project was submitted to the danish enterprise and construction authority who use it as a demonstration project for both regulatory authorities and design companies. Furthermore, we are in dialogue with a number of municipalities with a view to implementing some of the solutions. 3 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 8 03 05 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ case: the good kindergarten RESEARCH the project team carried out field work at the Jorden Rundt (Round the Earth) kindergarten and with four families with children. the focus of the task was geared towards the parents and thereby the ‘front stage’ experience of the kindergarten service. However, at the same time, it was also important to gain an insight into the ‘backstage’ processes and the institutions’ perspective on being able to design a service that is relevant to all players involved. 5 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 8 back stage there are numerous problems associated with the everyday working life of teachers. generally, they spend a lot of time on activities that, first and foremost, take time away not only from the children, but also from communication with colleagues and parents. points of contact many parents feel that the level of communication, in general, falls when the child goes from day nursery to kindergarten due to the lower level of normalisation. this applies to both day-to-day communication about the child and decisions on major aspects of the kindergarten. front stage the problems relating to the parents’ expectations of and views on the childcare provided at the kindergarten relate to both fundamental and general aspects of the childcare phenomenon and to more specific conditions at the particular kindergarten. OVERLOAD At twO CENtRAL pOINtS Of CONtACt: DROp-Off AND COLLECtION It’S UNCLEAR wHO IS mAkING tHE DECISIONS fOR tHE kINDERGARtEN – tHE pARENtS OR tHE mANAGEmENt? StAff (AND pARENtS) EXpERIENCE CHRONIC StAff SHORtAGES ON tHE GROUNDS Of SICkNESS LACk Of A DYNAmIC CHANNEL Of COmmUNICAtION bEtwEEN tHE pARENtS AND tHE kINDERGARtEN mANAGEmENt COmmUNICAtE IN A CLOSED wAY pRACtICAL wORk AND AD HOC pLANNING ACHIEVES tAkES Up A LOt Of tImE pARENtS DO NOt HAVE A CLEAR pICtURE Of tHE SERVICE tHEY ARE bUYING tHE kINDERGARtEN IS NOt GEARED tO bEING A SERVICE fOR pARENtS DIffERENt ‘CULtURES’ (pARENtS, kINDERGARtEN, tEmpORARY StAff, OtHER StAff) CREAtE CONfLICtS tHE CHILD’S DAY IS ‘INVISIbLE’ tO tHE pARENtS tEACHERS mUSt COmpLY wItH A mULtItUDE Of EXtERNAL DEmANDS AND pOLICIES 03 05 07 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ case: the good kindergarten ANALYSIS Analysis of the data gathered consisted of a mapping-out of the service process and identification of ‘gaps’ between expectations and experiences of the service and identification of the various players’ needs and motivations. finally, the analysis resulted in identification of 12 key problem areas. Each problem area highlighted potentials and opportunities for rethinking and improving the service experience. 7 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 8 03 05 07 09 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ DEVELOpING tHE IDEA AND CONCEpt the project team focused on developing new supplementary service elements that were not resource-intensive but on the other hand were easy to implement. taking the problems with the greatest potential for realisation as a starting point, a number of ideas and, subsequently, two concepts were developed in close dialogue with parents and other partners involved in the project. case: the good kindergarten 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 8 03 05 07 09 11 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ case: the good kindergarten RESULt the project resulted in two service concepts that introduce a number of new points of contact between parents and the kindergarten. One of the concepts focuses on the basic needs of the parents for following the child’s experiences during the course of the day, while the second is about making sure new parents are adequately prepared before their child starts at kindergarten. the overarching objective of both concepts is to increase the level of quality of the kindergarten as a welfare service experienced by the parents. 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 concept 1 READY StARt SmARt when the child is enrolled, the parents receive a multi-functional suitcase containing information on everyday life and rules at the kindergarten. the suitcase symbolises the journey that the child and his/her parents are embarking on, and its contents give the parents some insight into cultural rules and codes that may initially be invisible but could give rise to misunderstanding further down the line. CONtRACt Before their child is enrolled in the kindergarten, new parents receive a sort of contract laying out the basic rules. the contract has space for ten rules, each of which is illustrated and accompanied by a brief description. it is up to the kindergarten itself to decide which ten rules it wants to incorporate as the most basic. the objective of the contract is to highlight the most basic cultural codes that are not necessarily described elsewhere, and which can be difficult to communicate without appearing offensive. For example, one of the rules states that parents must only wave goodbye once before they go. another one states that it is best if they don’t hang around for too long when they are collecting the child. pICtURE bOOk parents are issued with a picture book that tells them about everyday life at the kindergarten. through this picture book they gain an insight into the flow of the institution and all of the practical tasks performed by teachers during the course of a normal day that parents otherwise never see. the book is structured in such a way that it can be customised and can be read by both parents and children. Furthermore, if it can be customised it will be more meaningful for both the individual institution and the child. mEmENtOS the suitcase can be used for keeping the child’s drawings, photos and other material. thus, the parents have a kind of archive that contains mementos from the child’s time at kindergarten. pERSONALISAtION the suitcase can be personalised. For example, pictures, stickers and luggage labels can all be added. personalisation helps create added value and thereby makes it an item that the child and parents can keep and use again. at the same time, personalisation will make it easier to differentiate it from other suitcases if the child brings it along to the kindergarten. 03 05 07 09 11 customer: danish enterprise and construction authority year: 2006 case : the good kindergarten 04/ pULSE pULSE is a concept that gives parents a completely new opportunity to follow everyday life at the kindergarten. the concept consists of a number of individual communication tools that each, in their own way, inform the parents about the social and practical activities that take place at the kindergarten during the course of the day. COmbI-bUILDING bLOCkS realistic pre-fabricated building blocks that both concept 2 children and teachers can use to illustrate their day. a set consists of 20 blocks with pictures on them that can be put together in various combinations. that way, the parents can quickly read whether the children have been inside or outside and whether they have been drawing, playing music and so on. this intuitive and pedagogic form allows children and adults to cooperate and at the same time, meets the needs of children and adults who don’t speak danish. tEXt NOtIfICAtIONS a text message-based service that notifies parents if there is a shortage of staff at the kindergarten. the system enables children and parents to prepare themselves mentally so that they know in advance who the substitute teacher in their specific classroom is, and if necessary, the best time to drop the children off. SOCIAL CLOUDS dynamic digital visualisation of the children’s social interaction with each other. social clouds function by means of giving the children a key ring or another personal object containing an rFid chip that registers the physical proximity of an individual child to other children. the raw data is visualised as animated clouds that grow and pulsate depending on who the children are together with. parents can see the animation on a screen in the kindergarten or via a website on their computer. DIGItAL LOGbOOk a digital logbook makes it possible for parents to receive information on the day via their mobile phone or the internet before they collect their children, or at home later. the logbook can be updated regularly or once a day, depending on the teacher’s plans and the parent’s needs. 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 Service design requires methods other than those that characterise traditional design tasks. It requires methods that involve the users, the providers and other partners. It also requires methods for mapping-out formal and experienced service processes and to simulate the intended service experience. 03 05 07 09 11 mEtHODS 05/ introduction ethnographic methods design game service Blueprinting service Quality model idea development game mapping our ideas experience prototyping video prototyping 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ INtRODUCtION A service takes place over time and consists of a large number of relationships between various players, elements and points of contact. therefore, it is first and foremost essential to have tools for mapping-out the whole service process. mapping-out the process exposes gaps between the formal, or expected service, and the experienced service and helps to identify potentials for the new solution. You can’t actually take a service into your hands and feel it, like you can with a product. therefore, it is crucial that you have tools for simulating the ultimate result – namely, the expected service experience. It is all about making the intangible service as tangible as possible. It is also important to use methods systematically to develop and prioritise ideas and concepts, since the complexity and volume of players involved is typically high. Since service design is all about taking what motivates and makes sense to the various co-creators of a service as the point of departure, methods, such as ethnographic fieldwork and design games - which we also use in other types of design tasks – are absolutely central to the process. All methods involve users, professionals, customers and other partners and are used in different phases of the design process – often more than once. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 Creating participant observation provides an opportunity for ‘getting a feel for the subject matter’ and direct observation of behaviour and context. observations often reveal the difference between what we say we will do and what we actually do. often, we are not actually conscious of the way we act - or it is simply difficult to put it into words. ethnographic interviews are often open and semi-structured so that users have the opportunity to set the agenda within a given subject area. through interviews, we gain insight into how the user thinks, talks and attributes meaning to things. We consciously provoke users into reacting and creating, for example, in relation to prototypes, drawing, photographs, building blocks or mapping things out. this gives the users concrete tools to uncover and express, for instance, what they dream about, what means something to them – things that we are not always conscious of. Doing Saying 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ EtHNOGRApHIC mEtHODS Ethnography is the act of describing a group of people by studying how they understand themselves, others and the world around them and the relationships and behavioural patterns that characterise them. we use field work as an ethnographic method of learning about the people we are designing for. fieldwork consists of ethnographic interviews and participant observations which we document using notes, photographs and video. As part of the field work, we also carry out different generative exercises with the users, for example, mapping-out their everyday lives. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 through the use of design games, we achieve a common result and a common understanding of a given subject area. it minimises the need for translation and transferal between project participants, users and customers. at the same time, the game represents a democratic process where all participants are systematically involved. 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ DESIGN GAmE Design games are a generic term for a structured way of organising and involving participants in a design development process. Design games can take different forms – everything from board games to role-playing. they can be played at different points of a design development process with different objectives. for example, the design game can be used for acting out a project process within a project team – or for qualifying and prioritising problems with users and other partners. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ SERVICE bLUEpRINtING Service blueprinting is a method we use to break down the service process chronologically into sequences. partly, we map out the formal process – i.e. the elements, sequences and contact points that make up the service from the perspective of the provider (‘back stage’). And partly, we map out the journey upon which the user embarks, as it actually unfolds and is experienced by them (‘front stage’). the objective is to identify gaps between the service that is expected and the service as it is experienced and, through this, localise the greatest development potentials. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 the model illustrates the link between the expected service and the delivered service and identifies the gaps that exist between the quality provided and the quality experienced. the model was originally developed by valarie zeithaml, a. parasuraman and leonard l. Berry on the basis of qualitative and quantitative studies of a number of commercial services. copenhagen living lab subsequently developed it further. 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ SERVICEQUALItY mODEL the service-quality model is a method of mapping-out the gaps identified – the relationship between expected and experienced service – in relation to the various players who are involved in the creation and receipt of a service. In other words, the model localises the innovation potentials spatially and can also be used to prioritise and evaluate ideas. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ IDEA DEVELOpmENt GAmE the idea development game is a method of generating ideas on the basis of identified problems. the participants in the project team brainstorm alternately on the basis of the various elements such as words, objects, pictures, individuals and feelings. the idea is to systematically link familiar and unfamiliar categories that don’t normally ‘go together’. this linkage encourages surprising ideas, creative thoughts and offbeat notions – on the basis of an informed and inspired foundation. by virtue of the common development process, it is ensured that all perspectives, disciplines, interests and competences contribute to creation of the service ideas. this helps anchor the idea and leads to innovative and relevant solutions. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ mAppING-OUt Of IDEAS we use different methods for categorising, evaluating and prioritising ideas in relation to identified problems and parameters. the parameters are relevance criteria such as financial, social and environmental results, the projects success criteria and goals, implementability, level of innovation etc. the objective is to ensure systematic and strategic development of an idea that will result in relevant and sustainable concepts. It is productive to carry out evaluations and prioritisation several times during the process – both with users and other players. this helps ensure that the project develops in the right direction and at the right pace. methods 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 the advantage of this method is that you physically move around the room and test and experience all elements of the service at first hand. potential weaknesses and pitfalls are manifested in a different way to how they would be if you had tried to envisage the situation at your desk at home. 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ EXpERIENCEpROtOtYpING methods we use different methods to simulate the intended service experience. One of the methods is role-playing. we create the framework for one or more scenarios, and together with the users we play out the process and situations, with or without objects. the role-playing can be done at the location where the user will come face to face with the service or in another physical 1:1 environment. Experience-prototyping can also be carried out via a narrative or visualisation, which enables participants to imagine, experience and test one or more elements in a service. the objective of experienceprototyping is to explore the qualitative elements that make up the service experience. 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 Fordelen ved denne metode er, at man bevæger sig fysisk rundt i rummet og afprøver og erfarer alle serviceelementer direkte på egen krop. mulige svagheder og faldgrupper viser sig på en anden måde, end hvis man havde forsøgt at tænke sig til det hjemme ved skrivebordet. 03 05 07 09 11 methods 05/ VIDEOpROtOtYpING methods the service process is converted into a script and recorded on video. Actors and elements in the film can be realistic and consist of real people, surroundings and objects – or it can be animated, using dolls for instance. the service experience is conveyed using this method as a coherent ‘as-if’ experience and is therefore extremely effective, as a method of developing high-quality service experiences, in terms of relevance to users and as a way of conveying the solution to external and internal participants and partners. 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 1508 helps companies create the services of tomorrow. Services that create results on the financial, social and environmental bottom line and ensure greater customer loyalty. 03 05 07 09 11 AppROACH 06/ 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8 1. R E SE AR CH 2. A NA I LYS S YpI NG tASk SOLUtION 3. I DE Ot Ot A A successful service design process takes as its starting point the users’ everyday situation and expectations. It is important to design solutions that enrich and motivate all parties involved - those receiving the service and those providing it. Iterative process the process that leads to service design solutions goes through a cycle from exploration of, and insight into the users’ everyday situation to analysis of the data collected and identification of patterns and problems. at its core is the users’ needs - and also those needs that the user has not yet acknowledged. on the basis of this knowledge, we develop ideas and concepts that can be tested and adjusted before we complete development of the final, concrete service design solution. the project process is iterative, which means that the phases are repeated several times at different points of the process. For example, we test the first hypotheses on problems and needs and the ideas developed in response to them by involving different participants in the process. this provided new analytical perspectives which in turn lead to the development of new ideas and concepts. AN DC ONC E p t 4. pR process phases in the research and analysis phase, we procure knowledge about the users’ everyday situation, unacknowledged needs, expectations and the quality of service experienced. We identify the areas with the greatest potential for improvement and best return on investment. in the idea and concept phase we develop the idea systematically, whereby every prioritised problem and every space of possibility is challenged. users are involved constantly in both the generation of ideas and validation of them. ideas and problems are linked in a matrix so that we can create a visual overview of the correlation between the prioritised problems and our solutions. ideas can now be coupled with one or more actual concepts. 03 05 07 09 11 approach 06/ ”DESIGNERS wILL HAVE tO CHANGE tHEIR AttItUDE. tHEY NEED tO DESIGN wItH AND NOt fOR pEOpLE.” roBert young, proFessor, centre For design research, northumBria university in the solution phase, we develop prototypes of the service solution and descriptions of the actual solution. the design of the prototypes depends on the individual service solution, but it could, for instance, consist of a visualisation of physical elements, process diagrams, interaction flows or physical products. also, a key element of the solution phase is the development of a business case for the solution so that the value of the new service solution can be evaluated in relation to investment in its development and operation. multidisciplinary, holistic approach the service design process is characterised by the involvement of several different perspectives and backgrounds. therefore, the users, competences and partners involved are more or less all active participants and co-creators right through the process. this is to ensure optimal accuracy of fire, innovation, and anchoring in relation to the service design solution. We have assembled competences within the fields of anthropology, ethnology, concept design, interaction design, communication, finance and technology. these competences are incorporated in various ways into the project teams behind the development of the service design. Collaboration service design is a relatively new field that challenges already familiar methods and processes. We have established collaborations with several national and international experts in the field – both in order to build on the latest knowledge and to involve external resource people in the project work. our work and approach are inspired by many wonderful colleagues and collaboration partners. We would especially like to thank copenhagen living lab and copenhagen institute of interaction design (cid) for their inspiration and knowledge in the field. 1 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 8