Transcript
1
Instructional Design for Interactive
Multimedia:
A guide
J ohann Fouché
2
Contents
1 IMM AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEM.................................................................................... 4
1.1 WHAT IS INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA ................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 HOW DO I SELECT THE APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEM?....................................................... 5
1.3 WHEN NOT TO USE IMM.................................................................................................................................. 6
1.4 FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN..................................................................................... 6
2 WHEN TO USE IMM............................................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 THE FEASIBILITY OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA................................................................................................ 7
2.2 A DECISION AID FOR THE FEASIBILITY OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA............................................................... 9
2.3 THE EXPORTABILITY OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA.......................................................................................... 9
2.4 IMM AUTHORING SOFTWARE.......................................................................................................................... 10
2.5 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT ............................................................................................. 14
2.5.1 Management Support .................................................................................................................................. 14
2.5.2 Staff Support and the IMM Team................................................................................................................ 15
2.5.3 The IMM Implementation Team.................................................................................................................. 16
2.5.4 How to change the Level of Support for IMM............................................................................................. 17
2.6 FACILITY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF IMM: ....................................................................... 18
2.7 IMM COST CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 19
2.7.1 IMM Development Costs............................................................................................................................. 19
2.7.2 IMM Development Hours............................................................................................................................ 19
2.7.3 More on Level of Presentation and Types of Training................................................................................ 20
2.7.3.1 The Best Case Scenario........................................................................................................................................21
2.7.3.2 Effect of Changes in the "Best Case" Scenario ....................................................................................................22
2.7.4 Influence of Program Change on Costs...................................................................................................... 24
2.7.5 Labour Hours to Produce IMM.................................................................................................................. 25
3 HOW TO PLAN AN IN-HOUSE IMM EFFORT .............................................................................................. 26
3.1 OVERVIEW....................................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 OUTLINE THE IMM EFFORT ............................................................................................................................. 26
3.2.1 Step 1: Establish a Development Process.................................................................................................. 26
3.2.2 Step 2: Prepare the Project Team.............................................................................................................. 28
3.2.3 Step 3: Develop Quality Control Procedures ............................................................................................ 28
4 HOW TO DESIGN IMM...................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 DEVELOP THE IMM SPECIFICATION................................................................................................................. 30
4.2 DETERMINE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES........................................................................................................ 32
4.3 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION FOR IMM................................................................................................................. 33
4.4 IMM CONTENT TYPES..................................................................................................................................... 34
4.4.1 Level of Processing for Content Type ......................................................................................................... 35
4.5 INTERACTIVITY ................................................................................................................................................ 36
4.5.1 Guidelines for Increasing Interactivity ....................................................................................................... 37
4.5.2 Learner Control .......................................................................................................................................... 38
4.5.3 Feedback Design......................................................................................................................................... 39
4.5.3.1 Guidelines for Designing Feedback for IMM......................................................................................................40
4.6 DETERMINE CMI AND TESTING STRATEGIES ................................................................................................... 41
4.6.1 Computer Managed Instruction.................................................................................................................. 41
4.6.2 IMM Tests ................................................................................................................................................... 41
5 FLOWCHARTING AND STORYBOARDS....................................................................................................... 43
5.1 FLOWCHARTING............................................................................................................................................... 43
5.2 STORYBOARDS................................................................................................................................................. 45
5.2.1 The Steps Involved in Storyboard Development ......................................................................................... 46
5.2.2 Guidelines for Storyboarding IMM............................................................................................................. 47
5.3 VISUAL ELEMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... 49
5.3.1 Guidelines for Visual Elements in a Storyboard......................................................................................... 49
5.3.2 The Video Storyboard ................................................................................................................................. 52
3
5.3.3 Guidelines for Text Elements of a Storyboard ............................................................................................ 54
5.3.4 Guidelines for Graphics and Animation Elements of Storyboard............................................................... 55
5.3.5 Guidelines for Audio................................................................................................................................... 56
5.3.6 Programming Standards Considerations.................................................................................................... 58
5.3.7 Storybook Guidelines for Programming ..................................................................................................... 59
5.3.8 A Checklist for Storyboarding..................................................................................................................... 59
6 HOW TO DEVELOP IMM.................................................................................................................................. 64
6.1 PROGRAM THE LESSONS................................................................................................................................... 64
6.2 PRODUCE VISUAL DISPLAYS AND RECORD AUDIO........................................................................................... 66
6.2.1 Guidelines for Producing Full Motion Video ............................................................................................. 66
6.2.2 Guidelines for Recording Audio ................................................................................................................. 67
6.2.3 Guidelines for Displays in an IMM Program ............................................................................................. 67
6.3 DEVELOP SUPPORTING MATERIALS.................................................................................................................. 68
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................................. 69
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 4
1 IMM as an Instructional Delivery System
1.1 What is Interactive Multimedia
What Is IMM? IMM, from a technology viewpoint, is a computer-controlled computer program
where the learning experience is based on the interaction between the learner
and the computer system, using text, graphics, video, animation and sound.
The student's decisions and inputs to the computer determine the level, order,
and pace of instructional delivery, and types of visual and auditory outputs.
HowIMMWorks With an interactive program, the student advances through the sequence of
instructional events by making decisions and selections through an input
device such as a keyboard, touch screen, mouse, trackball, light pen, or
joystick. The instruction branches according to the student's inputs and
responses.
IMMand
Instructional
Design
Because Interactive Multimedia is one of many instructional delivery tools, it is
essential that a full instructional design model should be implemented in order
to establish training requirements and translating them into appropriate
instructional objectives. In the design phase, one of the first and most
important tasks is that of selecting the instructional delivery system.
Examples of
Instructional
Delivery Systems
IMM, lectures, notes, platform instruction, formal on-the-job training, and
training devices and simulators are all examples of instructional delivery
systems. Time spent in properly matching training needs to the most
appropriate delivery system will ensure that today's selected state-of-the-art
technologies do not become tomorrow's dust collectors.
Advantages of
IMM
IMM, with characteristics never before available at any price, may be a
suitable instructional delivery system for many training objectives. Thanks to
the rapid development of computer technology, it is now possible to create, at
a reasonable price, new ways of designing and developing education and
training materials. Today, computers can be used to deliver interactive,
competency-based, individualised, multimedia instruction.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 5
1.2 How do I select the appropriate Instructional Delivery System?
General Rules for
Selecting IMMas
an Instructional
Delivery System
Brandt (1987) proposed certain rules for using interactive video as a
instructional delivery system. Brandt's rules have been revised to apply to any
form of IMM. The rules are shown in the following table:
General Rules for Using IMM as an Instructional Delivery System
R
u
l
e
1
Use IMM to gather a large collection of multimedia
material, such as slide collections or still
photographs or a mixture of still-frame and motion
sequences on film or video.
Rationale: When the volume of slides and the demand for reproduction
reach a certain point, the use of interactive videodisc (IVD) or CD-ROM
may prove to be the most cost-effective means of distribution. As for
motion sequences, film and video reproduction is, in the long run, much
more expensive than videodisc or CD-ROM reproduction. Also, film and
video tapes tend to deteriorate over time, where IVD or CD-ROM will
maintain the images at the same resolution for extensive periods.
R
u
l
e
2
IMM training should be considered when there are
a large number of learners distributed over time
and place.
Rationale: In this instance, a cost trade-off exists between self-paced,
individualised training and lecture-based training. The break-point is
achieved when the number of students is so large that it becomes more
economical to use individualised training methods rather than lecture.
R
u
l
e
3
IMM may be applied when instructors with subject
matter expertise are in short supply.
Rationale: Reductions in force, early retirements, instructors who are
subject matter experts (SME) but not skilled educators are some of the
reasons it is advantageous to capture subject matter expertise into an
IMM program.
R
u
l
e
4
Consider using IMM applications when it is
necessary to allow students to practice a skill and a
simulator or real equipment is impractical or
unavailable for this training.
Rationale: Use of real equipment or a simulator for training may present
a number of needs that could be met with an IMM simulation. If designed
correctly, an IMM simulation can often greatly reduce the amount of time
required in hands-on training on real equipment or a simulator. Real
equipment or a simulator might not be available to provide every student
with an opportunity to practice. Real equipment may be undesirable for
hands-on training because it is too delicate for constant use.
R
u
l
e
5
IMM can provide a safe, yet realistic, simulation of
dangerous activities and situations.
Rationale: When potentially hazardous procedures must be
demonstrated or practiced, simulation often becomes a necessity. A
case in point involves teaching maintenance personnel how to repair
high-voltage equipment. It is not possible to practice this task in an actual
situation. Simulation would allow maintenance personnel to practice
proper procedures without exposure to actual dangers. An IMM
simulation can show the effects of improperly performed procedures
without damaging equipment or injuring personnel.
R
u
l
e
6
IMM is a particularly suitable delivery system when
training requires continuous practice and/or
retraining.
Rationale: One of the most desirable features of IMM is the ease with
which any portion of a course or lesson can be retrieved and reviewed.
This characteristic of IMM is best illustrated by pilot training. Continuous
practice is required in many types of training.
R
u
l
e
7
IMM can be a very useful delivery method in
training problem-solving and decision- making
skills.
Rationale: Since advanced or higher-order skills are usually learned "on
the job," experienced workers are often forced to spend valuable time
training unskilled workers, at the expense of their own jobs. IMM training
could be substituted, thereby freeing skilled employees from the task of
training others. In theory, this type of formal training has the potential to
increase the productivity of all employees, and thus save the organisation
considerable expense.
R
u
l
e
8
When a training situation is such that students vary
in experience, learning style, and skill level, IMM
instruction can provide different types and levels of
instruction to different students.
Rationale: Specific features can be designed into an IMM program to
allow users to advance from level to level based on their experience and
skill levels. IMM programs can be designed to facilitate individual
differences in students' learning styles.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 6
1.3 When NOT to use IMM
Key to Using IMM Deciding when to use IMM requires a step-by-step examination process. IMM
should not be selected simply for its technological appeal. IMM is not the best
method for every training objective. This module will try to provide
background information and decision aids to help you decide when IMM is an
appropriate instructional method.
1.4 Formative evaluation and instructional design
Definition Formative evaluation is the continuous, organised creation of beneficial
change to the process of designing and developing IMM. The objective of this
process is to ensure the continuous improvement of the IMM process and
products.
Continuous
Improvement
Continuous improvement of the quality of instructional programs is an ongoing
concern. Each phase of the instructional design process is designed to force
managers and designers to ask the right questions to help focus on the actual
needs of the customer in terms of requirements, schedules, and budgets.
Customer satisfaction is the number one goal, and customer satisfaction
translates into meeting instructional requirements in the most effective and
efficient manner possible.
Define
Customer's
Needs
The first and most important step in developing quality IMM is to define the
customer's needs and requirements. It is impossible to design an adequate
training program without knowing the lack of knowledge or the performance
problems that need to be solved. The problems, needs, requirements and
objectives of the instructional program must be fully defined and agreed upon
before proceeding with the detailed instructional design.
Keep Customer
Involved
Once the requirements for the program have been established and agreed
upon, it is important to keep the customer involved in the process. There are
several natural phase points in the development of an IMM program where the
customer should be involved in the development and review of different
products that make up the IMM material.
Get "Buy In" It is essential that your customer "buy in" to your process and design. If your
customer disagrees with your solutions or ideas, it is better to find out and
make adjustments early in the process. If you keep your customer involved
throughout the process, there should be no "surprises" when the final product
is delivered.
Establish IMM
Team
Many different people are involved in the IMM process. Each member of the
IMM development team must know what is expected of them. Not only do
they need to know what products are required and when, they need to know
how IMM programs in your organisation look and function.
HowTo Use
These Guidelines
The guidelines in this module should help you to design and develop quality
IMM. The guidelines are drawn from the experience of many IMM
development teams throughout the world. These guidelines are not meant to
be binding on all IMM programs. They should be evaluated for use in your
environment, and adjusted accordingly. The guidelines are a starting point to
developing your own style guide and design criteria.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 7
2 WHEN TO USE IMM
Introduction Careful planning is essential in any program that brings together a number of
resources to accomplish a specific goal. Deciding whether to use IMM
requires very careful planning and consideration. This chapter provides
information and decision aids to help you decide when to use IMM.
2.1 The Feasibility of Interactive Multimedia
Introduction The general feasibility of IMM is evaluated by examining the following factors:
• Content factors
• Student factors
• Organisational factors
IMM Feasibility Summary
A B C
Rule Type of Factor Data Examined Impact on IMM Decision
CONTENT
1
Content
characteristics
Content and
training
effectiveness
Consider IMM if training
effectiveness is dependent on or
enhanced by graphic, sound,
motion, or photographic
presentation.
2 Content stability Likelihood of major
revisions
Consider IMM if major revisions are
limited to one per year.
3 Training time Projected number
of IMM lessons
Consider IMM if the number of
projected IMM lessons can offset
development and maintenance
costs within 2 years.
4 Course life cycle Projected course
life
Consider IMM if development and
maintenance costs can be offset
during the life of the course.
STUDENT
5 Learning style Former student
records
Consider IMM if learning style is
highly visual. (Resulting IMM should
also be visually oriented with heavy
use of video graphics.)
6 Reading ability Former student
records
Consider IMM only if reading ability
supports projected reading level of
anticipated lessons.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 8
7 Motivation level Former student
records
Consider highly interactive IMM with
frequent embedded
questions/extensive feedback if low
motivation is expected.
ORGANIZATIONAL
8 Training equipment Availability for
hands-on training
Consider IMM with simulation
capabilities if hands-on equipment
is unavailable.
9 Staff availability Resources and
commitments
Consider IMM if staff is available for
dedicated assignment to IMM
project.
10 Staff experience Resumes Consider IMM regardless of staff
experience. Plan for learning curve
time if staff is inexperienced.
11 Attitude toward IMM Staff meetings Consider IMM if resistance is
moderate or low. Plan for IMM
awareness training if resistance is
high.
12 Support for IMM Management
meetings
Consider IMM if support is evident.
Plan for development of position
paper if support is low.
13 Development
schedule
Management
meetings
Given a short schedule, consider
IMM if staff experience is extensive,
instructor resistance is low, and
management support is high.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 9
2.2 A Decision Aid for the Feasibility of Interactive Multimedia
HowTo Use This
Decision Aid
The IMM feasibility determination decision aid lists the factors that impact the
IMM decision. The factors are in the form of yes/no questions.
Consider pursuing IMM if you obtain five or more "yes" responses from the
factors on the decision aid.
The three factors with an asterisk (*) are especially critical because they
influence IMM costs. A "no" response to any of these three questions
provides evidence that IMM should not be pursued.
The factor with the double asterisk (**) is also critical. A "yes" response to this
question strongly indicates a need for IMM.
Type of Factor Feasibility Question Yes No
Content
stability*
Are IMM major revisions limited to one per year?
Training time* Can the number of projected IMM lessons offset
development and maintenance costs within 2 years?
C
O
N
T
E
N
T
Course life
cycle*
Is course life expectancy long enough to offset a
reasonable portion of development or maintenance
costs?
Learning style Is learning style highly visual?
Reading ability Does reading ability support projected reading level
of anticipated lessons?
S
T
U
D
E
N
T
Motivation
level
Is low motivation expected?
Training
equipment**
Is hands-on equipment unavailable for training?
Availability
Is staff available for dedicated assignment to IMM?
Experience
Is staff experienced?
Attitude Is acceptance to IMM high?
Support Is support for IMM evident?
O
R
G
A
N
I
Z
A
T
I
O
N
A
L
Development
schedule
Is the schedule flexible?
2.3 The Exportability of Interactive Multimedia
IMMExportability
Issue
Exportable IMM is IMM which is developed and/or managed at a centralised
location, but delivered at more than one remote user facility.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 10
A Decision Aid: :
Exportable IMM
Feasibility
If you plan to export IMM to remote locations, use this decision aid to
determine if it is possible to do so.
SECTION DESCRIPTION
I If you obtain a "yes" response to all three questions in Section
I, go directly to Section III. If you obtain a "no" response to any
of the questions in Section I, you need to complete Section II.
II A "no" response to either question in Section II indicates that
exportable IMM cannot be supported by the budget and should
not be attempted until funds are allocated. "Yes" responses to
Section II indicate that exportable IMM is feasible, and you
should complete Section III.
Howto use the
Decision Aid on
Exportable IMM
Feasibility
III "Yes" responses to the questions in Section III indicate that
IMM is feasible.
Exportability Questions Yes No
PART I
Is there existing hardware that can support IMM training?
Is the number of hardware stations sufficient to train the number of IMM
students?
Is the existing hardware available for IMM training?
PART II
Have you budgeted for hardware and software procurement?
Is budget available for operating IMM?
PART III
Is IMM an appropriate media for presenting this content?
Is the number of projected lessons large enough to justify IMM use?
Is the number of projected students large enough to justify IMM use?
2.4 IMM Authoring Software
Introduction This section describes authoring software and how the characteristics of
authoring software affect selection of an authoring software package.
Decision aids for selecting authoring software are presented.
Definition of
Authoring
Software
Authoring software is a special set of computer instructions used to create the
individual displays that make up IMM lessons. These instructions are used by
the courseware developer to tell the computer how the lesson should look and
operate.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 11
Types of
Authoring
Software
There are three types of IMM authoring software:
1 • Authoring Languages
2 • Authoring Systems
3 • Ancillary Software
Description of
Authoring
Software
The following is a description of the three types of authoring software.
Type of Authoring Software Description
Authoring Languages
An authoring language is a specialised,
high-level, plain English, language-like
computer program (often based on another
computer language like BASIC or PASCAL).
Authoring languages are flexible and can
meet a full range of instructional needs but
are frequently difficult to learn and use by
anyone who does not have a computer
programming background. An example of
an IMM authoring language is TenCore
Language Authoring System (LAS).
Authoring System
An authoring system (often referred to as an
authoring package) is a pre-packaged,
prompted authoring aid, courseware
template, or menu- driven editor designed to
help authors (without formal computer
programming skills) create IMM without
elaborate programming. Examples of IVD
authoring systems are Quest, TenCore
Producer, Mandarin, and WISE. Examples
of authoring systems for digital formats are
Toolbook, MediaScript, QuickTime,
Authorware Professional, Authology, and
Video for Windows.
Ancillary Software
Ancillary software refers to commercial, off-
the-shelf software packages or tools used
with authoring software. Examples of
ancillary software are:
• Word processing software
• Graphics software
• Flowcharting software
• Storyboarding tools
• Computer-managed instruction (CMI)
software
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 12
Restrictions for
Using Ancillary
Software
There are three restrictions for using ancillary software. The following is a
description of the three restrictions.
Restriction Description
1
The authoring and ancillary software must use the same
operating system. Windows, MS-DOS, UNIX, Macintosh
System 7, and OS/2 are major operating systems.
2
The authoring software must have the capability to import the
code generated by the ancillary software.
3
The authoring software must be able to understand the
imported code.
Authoring
Software
Capabilities
The following table shows authoring software capabilities of authoring
languages and authoring systems.
Authoring Languages Authoring Systems
1 Extensive CMI capabilities Limits on CMI
2 Programming language available
(for developing utilities to
increase efficiency)
Programming language may or
may not be available
3 Sophisticated branching Some systems limited on
branching
4 Flexible screen design Structured screen design
5 Programming required Programming not required
Technology
Advances with
IMMSoftware
As technology advances, the distinction between authoring languages and
authoring systems is becoming less defined. New versions of authoring
languages incorporating selection menus are on the market today. Similarly,
some authoring systems incorporate a programming language to enhance
flexibility.
Authoring
Software
Decisions
Typically, you will not need to decide whether to use an authoring language or
an authoring system. Because of the ease of implementation and the
flexibility and power now available with most authoring systems, the decision
you are more likely to be faced with is which authoring system you should use.
The information presented below will help you make this decision.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 13
Key Capabilities
of Authoring
Systems
For authoring systems to facilitate development of IMM, a variety of key
capabilities are required. The capabilities for authoring systems can be
divided into two major categories:
• Authoring and presentation capabilities
• CMI capabilities
The following is a description of Authoring, Presentation and CMI capabilities:
Type of Capability Description
Authoring and
Presentation
Authoring/ presentation capabilities assist in
performing such authoring tasks as:
Developing or editing text displays
Creating or editing graphics
Animating graphics
Developing written questions and response
analysis
Creating performance questions
Programming video sequences
Sequencing lesson material
Using utilities
CMI CMI capabilities are available to manage
instruction. Categories for CMI capabilities are:
Administration
Record keeping
Schedule generation
Answer judging
Report generation
Authoring systems or packages vary with regard to the authoring and
presentation capabilities and specific CMI capabilities listed above.
Factors
Influencing
Selection of
Authoring
Systems
Authoring systems should be analysed for the following selection factors:
• Capability to support instructional design
• Ease of implementation
• Hardware compatibility
• Use of existing software
• Cost
• Vendor support and reputation
• Licensing arrangements
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 14
2.5 Management and Organisational Support
Introduction Successful implementation of IMM depends on:
• Management support
• Staff support
• Proper facilities
2.5.1 Management Support
Management
Support
Three general types of management support are required:
• Commitment of funds
• Enthusiasm for project
• Ability to meet staff demands
Type of Support Description
Commitment of
Funds
Upper-level management support is needed for
successful IMM implementation. Management
controls the spending of funds. On IMM projects,
funds will be needed for:
• Purchasing hardware and software
• Training the IMM development staff
• Training personnel on their changing roles
related to IMM projects
Enthusiasm for
Project
Enthusiastic managers can serve as project
advocates and promote an atmosphere of co-
operation throughout the training organisation.
Managers can reduce negative attitudes by their
enthusiasm for a project.
Meeting staffing
demands
Management support is essential in meeting staffing
demands. The selection, assignment, and training
of personnel should be a major concern.
Management should assign personnel to the project
from start to finish. Although assignment longevity is
hard to achieve in a military environment, it is a
critical factor to the success of an IMM project.
Personnel rotation can slow the IMM process
because of learning curves for new employees, and
different perceptions of what is needed.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 15
2.5.2 Staff Support and the IMM Team
Staff Support IMM development requires staff members with a variety of experience. The
following table shows the basic IMM development team composition. It lists
the IMM staff positions and describes the specific responsibilities assigned.
IMM Development Team
Position Title Responsibilities
1 Courseware developer (CD) Authors lesson designs, flowcharts, and storyboards.
Designs and/or creates static and animated graphics,
performance exercise, simulations, and interactive
sequences. Programs lessons with authoring systems.
2 Instructional designer (ID) Develops standards and instructional strategies for IMM
lessons. Assists with lesson authoring when required.
Reviews completed lesson designs, flowcharts, and
storyboards for instructional integrity and conformance
with standards and strategies.
3 Subject matter expert (SME) Provides information on IMM subject matter. Reviews
lesson designs, flowcharts, storyboards, and
programmed lessons for accuracy and currency.
Authors lessons as required.
4 Courseware programmer
(CP)
Programs lessons with authoring languages. Develops
static and animated graphics with authoring languages.
Assists in ASCII code conversion when automatic
conversion is unavailable.
5 Graphic artist (GA) Develops graphics on paper for inclusion as an
interactive still-frame. May develop initial illustrations for
complex computer-generated graphics.
6 Computer artist (CA) Develops computer-generated graphics for inclusion as
a still-frame.
7 Media specialist (MS) Films motion and still-frame sequences. Co-ordinates
audio narration. Assists in planning premaster tape
layout.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 16
2.5.3 The IMM Implementation Team
IMMImplemen-
tation Team
After IMM is developed, a team of personnel with specific responsibilities is
needed to implement the program. The following table shows the IMM
implementation team composition and lists the position titles and
responsibilities of the team members:
IMM Implementation Team
Position Title Responsibilities
1 Resource manager Catalogues, stores, and distributes courseware
materials including student guides, workbooks,
flowcharts, storyboard hard copy, lesson design hard
copy, flowcharts, lesson disks, backup disks or tapes,
and version updates.
2 Courseware administrator Enrols students in IMM. Tracks student progress
through CMI reports. Maintains records on student
progression. Provides student progression records to
instructors.
3 System administrator Sets up and runs computer laboratories. Contacts
vendor for unscheduled maintenance. Trains staff to
use the hardware system.
4 Class monitor Assists students using IMM. Responds to operational
questions and monitors performance using CMI.
Updates instructors on student performance.
5 Instructor Provides individual remedial instruction and counselling.
Tracks student performance through CMI. Schedules
students for remediation. May also participate in IMM
development as courseware developer, instructional
design, or subject matter expert.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 17
2.5.4 How to change the Level of Support for IMM
Support Category Results of Support Deficit Action to Alter Deficit
1 Management support May have funding
problems. Lack of support
may flow down through
organisation.
Inform management of IMM
advantages and benefits.
Involve managers in the
decision process or planning
phase.
2 Staff support Instructors may resist the
change and be
uncooperative during
implementation.
Provide training on IMM to
reduce resistance. Convince
staff that changing roles does
not mean less responsibility.
Involve staff in decision
process.
3 Staff availability May not have the force to
develop IMM.
Add staff to current force.
Defer current commitments.
Contract out IMM
development.
4 Staff skills Learning curve will be
high. Development will
proceed slowly.
Train staff to perform IMM
development. Contract out
development. Add
experienced staff to current
force.
5 Staff dedication Lesson revisions increase
with IMM staff changes.
Develop and enforce lesson
standards to reduce potential
for format changes.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 18
2.6 Facility requirements for the implementation of IMM:
Facility
Requirements
A number of facility requirements affect the implementation of IMM:
• Delivery system facility requirements
• Development system facility requirements
• Special facility requirements
Type of Requirement Description
Delivery System
Facility Requirements
You will need a room to house the delivery
hardware systems. This room must be large
enough to house a learning station for each
student. Partitions are often used around the
learning stations to provide privacy for the
students. The learning station should also have
storage space for supplemental materials
(workbooks, laser discs, diskettes) and work space
for the students. If systems are networked, space
must also be available for the system used to
monitor CMI. Space may also be needed if a
printer is used.
Development System
Facility Requirements
Each member of the development team will need
work space and special resources. For example,
the graphic artist may need a drafting table and a
computer system. The medial specialist may need
access to a video lab and audio recording studio.
Special Facility
Requirements
The rooms housing the development and delivery
systems should have adequate cooling and power.
Rooms with networked systems must provide
storage for cabling that links each system with the
file server or host computer.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 19
2.7 IMM Cost Considerations
2.7.1 IMM Development Costs
Introduction This section explains how direct and indirect costs can affect your decision to
use IMM. This section also presents a methodology for estimating the amount
of time it will take to produce one hour of finished IMM.
Cost Factors The final decision about using IMM cannot be made until direct and indirect
costs are known. Here is a description of direct and indirect costs
Type of Cost Description
Direct Cost A direct cost is any cost that is specifically identifiable to
the project. Examples of direct costs are hardware and
software purchases, travel and per diem costs, and time
charges to a specific project. Other direct costs include
reproduction costs of IMM materials including discs, costs
to copy discs, and video production costs.
Indirect Cost An indirect cost is any cost that is not specifically
identifiable to the project. Examples of indirect costs are
payroll and administrative costs, electric bills, and basic
overhead accounts. Another example of an indirect cost
is the money required training a programmer on a
particular authoring system if the costs are not charged
directly to a specific project. Moneys associated with
modifying or constructing the IMM facilities could be
indirect costs.
2.7.2 IMM Development Hours
Estimating IMM
Development
Hours
The following table provides a baseline estimate from which you can begin the
process of determining the total number of hours it will take to design,
develop, and evaluate one hour of IMM. The table shows a baseline estimate
based on experience from actual IMM projects. The estimates are broken
down into level of presentation and type of training. Program management
time is included in the estimates.
Type of Training
Level of
Presentation
Estimate
Knowledge Skill Attitude
I – Basic 30-200 30 75 200
II – Medium 75-250 75 125 250
III – High 200-600 200 400 600
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 20
2.7.3 More on Level of Presentation and Types of Training
Level of
Presentation
Description
Level I Basic Presentation. This is the lowest level of IMM development in that
Level I lessons are linear (one idea after another), and are used
primarily for introducing an idea or concept. There is little "interaction"
other than the student touching the screen or using a keystroke or
mouse click to continue. The media used are primarily text and
graphics (not complex).
Level II Medium Simulation Presentation. This presentation level involves the
recall of more information than a basic Level I presentation and allows
the student to have increased control over lesson presentation; that is,
there is more interaction, for instance, students may be able to rotate a
switch. CMI can be used in Level II lessons to track and analyse
student performance. Level II normally combines audio, video, text,
graphics and animation.
Level III High Simulation Presentation. This level involves aspects of both Level
I and Level II while using the full abilities of IMM. Level III may even
present onscreen interaction similar to that used in an aircraft
simulator. This level provides a high degree of interactivity, extensive
branching capability, maximum remediation opportunity (supports
multiple levels of errors), real-time event simulation with minor
equipment limitations, capability to interface with other output devices,
and thorough CMI capability.
Type of Training Description
Knowledge A knowledge objective involves the use of mental processes which
enable a person to recall facts, identify concepts, and apply rules or
principles. An example of a knowledge objective is knowing how the
fuel flows through an aircraft system. A person manifests knowledge
through performing associated overt activities. Although knowledge is
not directly observable, it is measurable.
Skill Skill objectives are commonly described in terms of hard skills and soft
skills. Hard skills involve physical or manipulative activities, such as
operating or maintaining a piece of equipment. Soft skills often require
interpersonal activities such as conducting an interview. Hard and soft
skills are directly observable and measurable.
Attitude An attitude is a persisting state that influences or modifies an
individual's choices or decisions to act under certain circumstances.
An attitude objective represents a tendency on the part of the learner to
respond in a particular way. An example of an attitude objective is
choosing to wear a seat belt. Attitude objectives may be difficult to
observe and measure.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 21
2.7.3.1 The Best Case Scenario
Assumptions for
Estimating
Development
Hours
The hours provided in the previous table assume a "best case" situation.
Here is a list of factors which define a "best case" situation.
• The IMM developer is familiar with the subject matter, and has in-house
subject matter experts.
• The subject matter is not highly complex.
• The instructional content is stable; that is, the system for which the
training is being developed exists and is not emerging. Also, the tasks
selected for IMM training do not continually change.
• The instructional content is well documented. A training needs
assessment and task and learning analysis have been completed, giving the
designer a good idea of the performance expected and the tasks to be
trained. The technical materials supporting the content domain are accurate.
• The total IMM course length is 100 hours or more and the development
process will be accomplished within one year.
• The IMM developer is familiar with the selected IMM authoring software.
• The IMM developer is familiar with the target audience.
• The best commercial practices are accepted for software development
and video production.
• The IMM project team consists of individuals who are experienced with
IMM management, design and development.
• The selected IMM authoring system is mature and stable. No beta
versions are used.
• A lesson format and design strategy are agreed upon "up front", and the
customer has "bought into" it. If possible, the customer has approved a
prototype lesson. Also, the development process is standardised.
• The customer works closely with the design team on a regular basis.
The customer uses an objective acceptance criteria and does not continually
change the individual who is responsible for reviewing and approving the
lessons.
• All required resources are in place.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 22
2.7.3.2 Effect of Changes in the "Best Case" Scenario
Effect of
Changes in
Variables
The following table illustrates how the development hours will increase if the
factors described above are not present. Estimates are also provided
regarding the amount of risk associated with each variable.
Variables
Increase Hours
By:
Risk
(Scale 1-5)
None High
1 2 3 4 5
1. No "in-house" SMEs;
must rely solely on use of
customer SMEs.
25:1
2
2. Subject matter is highly
complex.
100:1
4
3. Instructional content is
unstable. System for which
IMM being developed is
emerging. Tasks for IMM
constantly changing.
100:1
5
4. Inadequate
documentation. No training
needs assessment was
performed. No task analysis
or learning analysis data.
Technical manuals/orders
non-existent or not helpful.
20:1
4
5. Total IMM course length
<100 hours. (less potential for
use of templates, shells, etc.)
20:1
1
6. IMM developer not
familiar with IMM software/
authoring package.
15:1
2
7. IMM developer not
familiar with target audience.
10:1
2
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 23
Variables
Increase Hours
By:
Risk
(Scale 1-5)
None High
1 2 3 4 5
8. Inexperienced project
team:
IMM designers
inexperienced
IMM manager
inexperienced
IMM programmer
inexperienced
80:1
100:1
60:1
3
1
4
9. Using a beta version of
the IMM software.
80:1
4
10. No prototype exists, no
agreement "up front" on
design strategy, no
standardised development
process followed.
50:1
5
11. Customer not using
objective and consistent
acceptance criteria.
Customer unsure of what he
wants and does not
communicate with developer.
50:1
5
12. Required resources not in
place at start of project.
20:1
1
Estimating Labor
Hours to Produce
IMM
Use the information in the above tables to estimate the hours required to
design, develop, evaluate and produce IMM.
Example of Using
the Above
Tables.
Assume that Level II IMM is being estimated to train a skill. The product to be
developed is IVD, and the course length is estimated at 100 hours. You are
familiar with the software and have experienced people. The programming
and video production will be completed "in house." No training needs
assessment has been performed and the subject matter is highly complex
(add 100 hours). You do not have in-house subject matter experts (add 25
hours). The instructional content is stable but the documentation is poor (add
20 hours). You are not familiar with the target audience (add 10 hours).
Beginning with the number 125 (the hours it would take to develop one hour
given the "best case" situation), you should add a total of 155 hours to the
estimate, bringing the total up to 280 hours.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 24
2.7.4 Influence of Program Change on Costs
Estimating Costs
for Course
Configuration
and Maintenance
The following table gives examples of the typical kinds of changes often
encountered during IMM development. The table shows the number of hours
commonly associated with minor, moderate, and major changes. The hour
estimates can be used to help the IMM manager determine if the change will
require additional funds to implement.
Level of Change
Type of Change
Minor Moderate Major
Technical Example: switch
position is wrong
Example:
functioning of an
entire
component must
be changed due
to an equipment
modification
Example:
introduce entire
set of new tasks
Instructional Example: allow
student two tries
instead of one
Example:
change one test
from multiple
choice to
true/false
Example:
introduce entire
new strategy on
how to test
Media Example:
change font
Example: add
four full-motion
video shots
Example:
replace all
graphics with
video
Hours (to drive
decision)
<40 Judgement call
40-160
>160
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 25
2.7.5 Labour Hours to Produce IMM
Estimating
Labour Hours to
Produce IMM
Here is a description of the type of changes you can expect during the IMM
development process.
Type of Change Description
Minor changes Minor changes typically are those requiring less than 40
labour hours to complete. Minor changes rarely require
additional funds.
Moderate
changes
Moderate changes often require "judgement calls" to
determine whether more funds are necessary. Often a
moderate change can be made if some other aspect of
the course design is reduced.
Major changes Major changes are those requiring more than 60 labour
hours to accomplish, and most likely will result in the
requirement to add funds to the project.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 26
3 HOW TO PLAN AN IN-HOUSE IMM EFFORT
3.1 Overview
Introduction The first step to deliver a quality IMM program to your customer is to develop
a project plan. Without a well-developed project plan, neither you nor your
customer will know what to expect, when to expect it, or how well it should
work. Customer dissatisfaction at product delivery is often due to a lack of
communication with the customer during the project. The project plan is a
convenient tool to use to communicate with your customer. This chapter
describes all of the activities performed during the planning phase of an IMM
program.
3.2 Outline the IMM Effort
Introduction Procedures for outlining the IMM development effort are described in this
section. There are four steps to outlining the IMM effort.
Step 1 Establish a development process.
Step 2 Determine project deliverables.
Step 3 Define staff positions and responsibilities.
Step 4 Develop a master schedule.
3.2.1 Step 1: Establish a Development Process
Establish a
Development
Process
Think through the entire development process and prepare a list of steps
required for each phase. Not all the steps shown in this table are needed for
every project, and the last three steps apply only to projects in which IVD is
the delivery system. Once you select the steps as listed, briefly write out the
following information:
• Purpose of the step
• Products resulting from the step
• Documentation used in developing the products
• Personnel responsible for the step
• Review and approval process for the step
Determine
Project
Deliverables
The project plan should clearly spell out what products you will deliver to your
customer. The most common IMM products are:
• IMM treatment plan or course specification
• Storyboards and flowcharts
• IMM lessons
• Supporting materials
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 27
IMM Phases and Steps
A B C
Phase Step Description
1 Develop a process outline. Document development process, staffing requirements, and
completion schedule.
2 Develop quality control
procedures.
Document quality control process and staffing requirements.
3
P
L
A
N
N
I
N
G
Prepare the development
team.
Make staff assignments and determine resource and training needs.
4 Determine course structure. Segment course objectives into lessons.
5 Define instructional
strategies.
Develop basic strategies for multiple lessons.
6 Develop design
specifications.
Define lesson components and document format and operation
standards.
7 Design data bases. Determine organisation of project data bases (graphics library, CMI,
and storyboard).
8 Develop lesson designs. Develop/sequence subordinate objectives, practice items, feedback,
and test items.
9
D
E
S
I
G
N
Develop lesson flowcharts. Plan/sequence individual lesson displays and make initial
graphics/video designs.
10 Develop storyboards. Fully develop text and narration; fully design graphics and video shots.
11 Produce graphics. Develop graphics for lesson and store in graphics library data base.
12 Initiate lesson programming. Enter text, graphics, branching logic, etc., from storyboard to create an
operational lesson. (Program all non-video lesson segments.)
13 Produce visual material for
videodisc.
Shoot photographs and video of operational equipment, procedures,
etc.; select best frames.
14
P
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Record narration. Record IVD narration using storyboard scripts.
15 Select photographs or video
frames.
Review all visual "takes" and select best shot.
16 Edit video. Perform video editing and create composites.
17 Design videodisc layout. Plan placement of frames on videodisc to reduce access time during
lesson operation.
18 Review master tape or
videodisc.
Perform quality control for final approval.
19 Update storyboards. Enter final frame numbers onto storyboards.
20
P
O
S
T
P
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Complete lesson
programming.
Program video-dependent segments of lesson.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 28
Define Staff
Position and
Responsibilities
The make-up of the development team depends on the characteristics of the
proposed IMM and the authoring software selected for the project. As part of
your project plan, you need to describe the positions and responsibilities of
each IMM team member. Define their individual assignments and how they
will work together as a team to produce interim products and final lessons.
Develop a Master
Schedule
Develop a master schedule as part of your process outline. Define completion
dates for each interim and final IMM product. The IMM development team will
use this schedule to pace its efforts. The IMM management team will use this
schedule to track progress on the effort.
3.2.2 Step 2: Prepare the Project Team
Introduction Once you have developed the master schedule and you have defined the
roles of all project team members, you need to prepare the project team to do
the job. Do the following things:
• Determine training requirements.
• Provide documentation.
Determine
Training
Requirements
The key to determining team members' training requirements is to examine
their experience. Determine the background of the team. If members do not
have IMM experience, they are likely to need some training. If they do have
IMM experience, they still may need formal training on the software package
chosen if they lack experience with it.
Provide
Documentation
The development team members will need copies of documents that explain
how they are supposed to do their job. They should also receive documents
that are required to develop IMM, such as:
• Development process outline
• Quality control procedures
• IMM design specifications
• IMM hardware and software user's manual
3.2.3 Step 3: Develop Quality Control Procedures
Introduction The last activity performed during the planning phase is to develop the quality
control (QC) procedures to give to the project team members. The QC
procedures should be updated throughout the project to ensure that lessons
learned in one part of the project are applied to work remaining to be
accomplished. Include the following in the QC procedures:
• Establish a review and approval process.
• Develop QC job aids.
• Establish a process to report discrepancies.
Reviewand
Approval
Process
The review and approval process should be established to make sure that all
products meet quality standards.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 29
A Reviewand
Approval Form
The review and approval form should be filled out and attached to each
product associated with a lesson. As the product is reviewed and approved,
the document should be signed by the approving authority. The document
should be complete for each product associated with the lesson. The primary
author should date the form to tell the reviewer when the review must be
completed. The form should not be signed until all suggested corrections are
made, checked and approved. Unapproved products should be returned to
the author for correction.
QC Team
Responsibilities
QC is the collected responsibility of the entire development team, and each
member has specific review and approval duties.
QC Job Aids The review checklist is the primary QC job aid. This checklist outlines each
product to be reviewed in conjunction with the personnel responsible for each.
A separate checklist should be made for each courseware product. Many
items on the checklist could be taken directly from the design specification
document. Your IMM job aids may use some of the same information.
QC Responsibilities of IMM Development Team
Position Title Quality Control Responsibility Significance of Review and
Approval Sign-Off
1 Courseware developer Authors an easy-to-understand,
technically accurate lesson that
is consistent with design
documents.
Product has been reviewed and
is judged to be satisfactory and
consistent with design
documents.
2 Instructional designer Reviews lesson products for
instructional integrity and
conformance with design
documents.
Product has been reviewed and
is judged to be instructionally
effective and consistent with
design documents.
3 Subject matter expert Reviews lesson products for
technical accuracy, currency,
and completeness.
Product has been reviewed and
is judged to be technically
accurate, current, and complete.
4 Courseware programmer Programs lessons according to
design documents and
storyboard instructions.
Develops clear, easy-to-read
graphics according to
storyboard instructions.
Operational lesson has been
reviewed online and is judged to
be "bug"-free and to operate as
specified. Static graphics are
clear; animated graphics
operate as specified and correct
video and graphics are called
into lesson at the correct
location.
5 Graphic or computer artist Develops clear, uncluttered,
easy-to-read graphics according
to storyboard instructions.
Online graphics have been
reviewed and are judged to be
correct, clear, and easy to read.
6 Media specialist Produces high quality, clear
videotape according to shot list
and storyboard instructions.
Videotape has been reviewed
and is judged to be high quality.
7 Quality specialist Reviews lesson products for
instructional integrity and
conformance with design
documents.
Product has been reviewed and
is judged to be instructionally
effective and consistent with
design documents. Operational
lessons are user-friendly and
consistent.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 30
4 HOW TO DESIGN IMM
Introduction
This chapter addresses how to design an IMM course. When you design the
IMM, you will use products from the ISD process, such as task analysis
reports, lists of learning objectives, and target audience analysis reports.
4.1 Develop the IMM Specification
Introduction The IMM course/lesson specification describes in general terms how the IMM
will look and function. This section describes how to develop the IMM
specification.
Purpose of
Course/Lesson
Specification
There are many purposes for the course/lesson specification:
• The IMM design team uses it to guide their efforts in meeting the
customer's needs.
• It serves as a vehicle to get your customer to "buy in" to your IMM
efforts. If the customer does not agree with the approach as described in the
design specification, you can make changes to the strategy that will not affect
work already completed (like storyboards or programmed lessons).
• The design specification describes what you think is the "best approach"
for presenting the IMM instruction.
Level of Detail in
the IMM
Course/Lesson
Specification
The most important aspect of the course/lesson specification is the amount of
detail it should contain. Keep it short and sweet! If it takes more than 20
pages to describe how the course will look and function at this point, you have
not thought things out thoroughly enough. The specification is like an
executive summary of the IMM, not a detailed description. Jack Webb said it
best: "Just the facts."
Content of the
Course/Lesson
Specification
The course/lesson specification should include:
• An overview of the content of the course (lesson objectives).
• A brief description of the instructional strategy. This is a very important
aspect of IMM design. Section B describes in detail how to determine the
IMM instructional strategies.
• A high-level description of how the IMM will work from the student's
perspective. Take the task data and objectives and determine the number of
modules and lessons that will be required to support the objectives. List the
modules by name that will make up the course and break the modules into
lessons, and give a name to each lesson.
• Remember, in the IMM design specification you do not need a lot of
detail. You need to provide just enough information to give your developers
and your customers a "feel" for the IMM.
• A top-level flowchart is a useful way to describe how the IMM will work
from the student's point of view. Figure 1 provides a sample of the
organisation of a typical IMM course.
• A description of the student measurement (testing) approach for the
course.
• A list of supplemental materials to be developed to support the course.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 31
COURSE
MODULE n
MODULE 2
MODULE 1
Lesson n
Lesson 2
Lesson 1
Lesson test
Summary
Content
Section 2
Content
Section 1
Pretest
Introduction
Lesson Menu
Instructions
Title Page
Sign-On
MODULE 1
MODULE 2
MODULE n
LESSON 1 LESSON 2 LESSON n
Content
Section n
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 32
4.2 Determine Instructional Strategies
Introduction Instructional strategies are the general instructional treatment given to lessons
in an IMM course. In determining instructional strategies you will be
concerned with ensuring that:
• The IMM design facilitates learning and processing of information.
• The IMM design accommodates the types of information or content of
the program.
• Interactivity is increased.
• Degree of learner control is addressed.
• Feedback is appropriate for enhancing learning and transfer.
Each of these issues is addressed below.
Events of
Instruction for
IMM
Particular activities or events can be designed into IMM programs to help
ensure that learning occurs. The method chosen for inclusion is Gagné's
"Events of Instruction."
Types of Content Content of training programs can be categorised as a particular type of
information. The type of information affects the design of lessons in terms of
processing required, the instructional treatment used, and requirements for
practice within a lesson.
Instructional
Implications of
Content Type
Depending on the type of content, different levels of information processing
may be required.
Guidelines for
Increasing
Interactivity
A key feature of IMM is that it provides the opportunity to involve the learner in
a training program. It is important to design as much meaningful interaction
as possible into an IMM program.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 33
4.3 Events of Instruction for IMM
Events of Instruction
Event Purpose Examples
1. Gain Attention • Focus student attention on key
information
• Motivate
• Use humour
• Show consequences of certain
actions
2. Inform Student of Objective(s) • Tell students what they are about
to learn
• Tell
• Demonstrate
• Ask rhetorical questions
3. Stimulate Recall of Relevant Prior
Knowledge
• Help students retrieve
background and prerequisite
information
• Ask rhetorical questions
• Present a review
• Remind students
4. Present Information • Teach students the required
knowledge/skills
• Use audio, text, video, and
graphics
• Compare similarities and
differences
• Point out critical and distinctive
features
5. Provide Guidance • Enhance comprehension and
retention
• Ask probing questions
• Give students hints or options for
help
• Use mnemonics, job aids,
checklists
6. Elicit Performance • Provide practice • Ask questions
• Ask students to do something
7. Provide Feedback • Address student's
misconceptions or lack of knowledge
and skills
• Feedback can be:
• right or wrong
• explanation why
• remediation
8. Assess Performance • Determine if students have
mastered the objectives
• Test on knowledge/
understanding
• Test on task performance
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer • Help students apply knowledge
and skills learned
• Review questions missed in
practice
• Provide a summary
• Practice across different
situations
• Practice in real job environment
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 34
4.4 IMM Content Types
Content Type Definition Example
Fact • Unique, one-of-a-kind type
of information
• Parts of a car
Concept • Class of items that share
critical common features
• Cars
• Horsepower
• Torque
Principle • Cause-and-effect
relationship that results in
predictable outcomes
• If the engine generates more
horsepower, more torque is
produced
Procedure • Series of clearly defined
steps which result in
achievement of a job task
• How to change oil
Process • Description of how things
work (i.e., what happens)
• How a car engine works
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 35
4.4.1 Level of Processing for Content Type
Content Type
Level of
Processing
Instructional Treatment Practice Requirements
F
a
c
t
R
e
m
e
m
b
e
r
• Provide tutorial
• Use lists, charts, or graphics
(with labels) to present facts
• Provide drill and practice to
reinforce recall
• Provide job aid if memorisation
of the facts is not essential
• Provide opportunities to
practice facts in context (e.g., in
processes or procedures)
C
o
n
c
e
p
t
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
• Provide tutorial
• Present definition, examples,
non-examples, and analogies of a
concept
• When presenting examples
and non-examples, start with clear-
cut ones and then move to fuzzy
ones
• Provide drill and practice to reinforce
classification
• Use new examples and non-
examples in practice
• Provide opportunities to practice
concepts in context (e.g., in principles)
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
• Present guidelines and
examples (and perhaps non-
examples) to illustrate a principle
• Use graphics, video, or
animation
• Analogies may help clarify
the point
• Provide drill and practice to facilitate
automaticity
• Provide problem-solving exercises
and simulation to reinforce transfer
P
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
e
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
• Demonstrate steps and
provide follow-along practice
• Use flowcharts,
action/decision tables, and
checklists for mental procedures
• Use video for demonstrating
physical procedures
• Provide drill and practice to facilitate
automaticity
• Provide problem-solving exercises
and simulation followed by hands-on
exercises in real job environment to
ensure transfer
P
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
e
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
• Illustrate the flow of the
process
• Use graphics, animation, or
video to portray a process if real
objects are involved (e.g., blood
flow in human bodies)
• Use process tables or flow
diagrams to present a process if it
is abstract (e.g., management
process)
• Analogies may help clarify
the point
• Provide drill and practice to enhance
retention
• Provide problem-solving exercises
and simulation to reinforce transfer
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 36
4.5 Interactivity
Definition of
Interactivity
In any type of computer-based training, interactivity refers to the activities
performed by both the learner and the computer. The quality of interaction
depends on a number of variables, including the type of input required by the
learner, how the response is analysed, and how the computer responds back
to the learner.
Guidelines for
Learner Control
In many instances learners can make appropriate decisions about the most
effective way to proceed through a training program. Research suggests,
however, that in many instances, learners do not choose the most effective
route; therefore, careful consideration of learner control issues is important in
the design of IMM.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 37
4.5.1 Guidelines for Increasing Interactivity
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Provide opportunities for interaction at
least every three or four screens or,
alternatively, about one per minute.
However, mandatory interaction with
the computer should not be superficial.
Without interaction, the program is just a
fancy electronic page turner. However, if
an action required is somewhat
superficial, the student may be distracted
by it and become annoyed. Students
prefer not to have superficial interaction.
2 Chunk the content into small segments
and build in questions (with feedback),
periodic reviews, and summaries for
each segment.
Chunking content into smaller units and
providing opportunities for interaction
(e.g., questions) within each information
segment allows students to interact with
the program more frequently.
3 Ask as many questions as possible
without interrupting the continuity of the
instructional flow.
Questions:
• Produce immediate feedback to
students regarding their own
performance
• Provide information for the system to
evaluate student performance and take
necessary actions
• Sustain student attention by keeping
them mentally active in the learning
process
4 Ask a question after, but not
immediately following, the related
content.
A gap between a post-question and its
related content forces learners to
mentally search for and review
necessary information, rather than
repeating what they were just taught.
This searching and reviewing enhances
retention.
5 Sometimes a straightforward
presentation of new content can be
boring. Ask students a question related
to the content that hasn't been taught
but the answer can be figured out using
previously learned knowledge.
This adds variety, challenges students,
and maintains their interest.
6 Ask questions at the application rather
than the memory level.
Application questions enhance attention
and comprehension and facilitate
transfer of learning.
7 Use rhetorical questions during
instruction to get students to think about
the content or to stimulate their
curiosity. Also use them as a natural
transition between frames.
A rhetorical question is a question that
does not require students to overtly
provide an answer. It invites students to
mentally interact with the content. Used
as a transition aid, it can direct students'
attention to what is coming up next.
8 Consider designs where the learner is
not presented with information in a
linear format, but rather discovers
information through active exploration in
the program.
This adds variety, challenges students,
and maintains their interest.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 38
4.5.2 Learner Control
Definition of
Learner Control
Learner control refers to the degree to which learners are allowed to take
charge of the aspects of the instruction and their learning environment: what
to learn and how to learn it. The table presents some guidelines for designing
learner control of content, sequencing, and pace into IMM training programs.
Guidelines for Designing Learner Control into IMM
Guideline Description Rationale
Provide learner control over pace when:
1 Students believe that spending
more time on a topic will
increase their success.
Students are often more satisfied
with a program when they can
choose the pace because they
can spend more time on the
topics that relate to their personal
needs and goals.
2 You believe that students will
benefit from additional time,
(that is, their performance will
improve).
Additional time may allow
students to integrate new
information with previous
knowledge.
Provide learner control of sequence when:
1 Lengthy instructional programs
are introduced with no specific
presentation order.
Control over sequence will help
maintain learner motivation and
interest.
2 Students are familiar with a topic
and are able to make
appropriate sequence choices.
Students can choose information
which will be relevant to them.
3 The type of learning includes
cognitive strategies or higher-
order problem solving.
Sequence control will allow
students to make selections that
may facilitate flexible and novel
thinking.
Note:
Do not provide sequence control
to students in situations where
the materials have a specific
prerequisite order.
Learning could be inhibited if the
sequence is improperly chosen.
Determine the amount of learner
control based on your resource
availability as well as these
guidelines
The more control you allow the
student over content, pacing, and
sequence, the more development
work and therefore the more
resources will be required.
Provide full learner control of content if:
1 Students have significant
previous knowledge of the
content.
Presentation of known materials
could be irrelevant and
uninteresting to students.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 39
2 Students have higher ability (that
is, they are "sophisticated"
learners).
Sophisticated learners may be
better able to make content
choices based on their needs.
3 There is a high probability that
students will succeed in learning
the content regardless of the
chosen content.
Students will perceive through
feedback that success is under
their personal control and is in
fact relatively independent of the
chosen content.
4 Cognitive strategies and higher-
order problem-solving (rather
than facts) are being taught.
This guideline supports individual
differences in learning style.
Different students may see the
relevance of different content and
will be able to use this information
effectively in novel ways during
the learning of cognitive
strategies and higher-order
problem solving.
5 The skills are not critical, the
training is optional, and student
motivation is high.
This guideline will help to
enhance learning for highly
motivated students.
Note: Do not provide full learner control
of content when all topics in the
instructional presentation are required for
successful completion of the program or
when there is a hierarchical order to the
materials.
The student may skip over
relevant information.
Influencing
Factors
The following factors may influence your decisions regarding the amount of
learner control you design into the IMM:
• Your knowledge of the target audience
• Learning skills of the target audience
• Motivation of the target audience
• Type of content
• Criticality of training
• Available resources
4.5.3 Feedback Design
Guidelines for
Feedback Design
Another important aspect of good IMM design is the use of feedback to the learner.
Definition of
Feedback
Feedback refers to the indication that tells the learner about the accuracy of their
response. Feedback can be used to address any possible student misconceptions or
lack of prerequisite knowledge. Feedback can be used to help students learn,
enhance retention and measure how much they have learned.
Content of
Feedback
Feedback may consist of:
• Knowledge of results (correct or incorrect)
• Explanation why the selected response is correct or incorrect
• Branching to remedial session (optional or forced)
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 40
4.5.3.1 Guidelines for Designing Feedback for IMM
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Keep feedback on the same
screen with the question and
student response.
Reduce memory load.
2 Provide feedback immediately
following a student response.
Information about test results is
an important element in the
learning process. Delayed
feedback can confuse students.
3 Provide feedback to verify the
correctness and explain why.
It may not be clear to students
why their responses are correct
or incorrect. Therefore, in
addition to knowledge of results,
feedback should provide specific
information about why a response
is correct or incorrect.
4 For incorrect responses, give
the student a hint and ask the
student to try again.
Without the hint, students may
fail again and feel frustrated. The
hint helps students recall relevant
information to answer the
question.
5 Tailor the feedback to each
learner's response.
Feedback should address the
misconception a student may
have by selecting a particular
incorrect response.
6 Provide positive feedback.
However, do not provide the
type of feedback that may
encourage incorrect responses.
Feedback, when properly used,
can provide students with the
motivation to learn. Cynical or
negative feedback may
discourage a student.
7 In simulation, feedback is
embedded in how the simulated
world responds to a particular
learner action. Add instructional
feedback to simulation
responses to explain why the
simulated world reacted in a
certain way or to provide a hint.
Instructional feedback guides the
student through the simulation.
Later it can be phased out to
facilitate transfer.
8 If possible, allow students to
print out a copy of their test
results.
Often students like to maintain a
hard copy record of their
performance.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 41
4.6 Determine CMI and Testing Strategies
Introduction An important aspect of IMM development is test and test items design and the
design of computer-managed instruction (CMI) functions and records.
4.6.1 Computer Managed Instruction
Definition of CMI CMI is the function of the IMM authoring software related to student data
collection. CMI generally includes:
• Registration of the student in an IMM course.
• Point-of-entry for the student to the course, often based on a pre-test
performance or previously "bookmarked" location. Students should be able to
leave a lesson and return to the same point at a later time.
• Collection of data regarding the student's performance on tests and
practice exercises.
• Determination of student mastery of objectives.
• Reporting of information to an instructor.
• Disenrollment of student from the course.
CMI Capabilities Prior to designing the CMI for your IMM course, you need to review the
authoring software selected to determine the kind of data collection and
analysis that is possible.
4.6.2 IMM Tests
Design of IMM
Tests
Tests are developed to measure a student's knowledge, skill, or attitude on a
particular subject.
Types of IMM
Tests
The types of tests usually developed in IMM courses are pre-tests and
criterion tests.
Pre-test The pre-test is used to measure the student's ability to
attain each objective and is used after the IMM is
operational to determine what instruction the student
needs.
Criterion Test The criterion test is used to measure the student's
attainment of the objectives and to measure the
effectiveness of the IMM.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 42
Tips for IMMTest
Design
The following table provides guidelines for designing IMM tests:
Guidelines for Designing IMM Tests
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Use a student's pre-test score to
branch the student to "need to
know" information.
This reduces student boredom by
forcing them to learn things they
already know.
2 Use the student's pre-test score to
gauge deficiencies in entry-level or
prerequisite skills and knowledge.
The pre-test will stimulate recall of
relevant prior knowledge (one of the
"events of instruction").
3 For pre-tests, explain that the
students are not expected to know
all the answers.
This will put students "at ease" with
the new instruction.
4 Introduce the test by telling
students how many questions they
will see and how long it should take
them to complete the test.
This will help students gauge how
extensive the test is.
5 Let students "back out" of taking a
pre-test if they know they do not
know the content.
Forcing students to take a test when
they know they don't know the
content can introduce unnecessary
stress into a learning situation.
6 Provide good instructions for taking
the test, including how to change
answers.
This reduces the possibility of
students making errors when they
actually have mastered the
objective.
7 Provide a method for students to
review their completed test.
If students responded with a wrong
answer and subsequently realise it,
they should be able to correct the
answer, just as they can in a paper-
and-pencil testing situation.
8 Provide feedback to students'
answers in the same order that
they answered the questions.
This reduces confusion.
9 Design the program so that the
computer "works through" a
problem with students instead of
just giving the correct answer.
This reduces learning time because
a student may have a partially
correct answer. The computer
should identify the point where the
student is in error and invite the
student to go on from there.
10 If questions are drawn from a "pool
of questions," remove correctly
answered questions from the pool.
The learning criterion has been
achieved and students should not
be required to answer these
questions again.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 43
5 Flowcharting and Storyboards
5.1 Flowcharting
Introduction This section presents guidelines for flowcharts and storyboard development.
IMMFlowcharts Prior to the development of the IMM storyboard it is helpful to have a flowchart
of the content for the program. Storyboards are then created for each item
included in the flowchart. The flowchart also serves to provide order for the
instructional sequence.
Definition of an
IMMFlowchart
IMM flowcharts are developed to show the layout of the entire IMM course.
To save time and effort it is recommended that you use a flowcharting
software tool, such as the PC-based tool called "Flowcharting 3, Version 1.1"
(product of Patton and Patton Software Corporation). This tool allows a user
to build a flowchart very quickly because it creates an image file and
flowcharting symbols instead of using the more typical line-draw function.
However, some authoring software packages include a flowchart tool in the
package.
IMMFlowchart
Guidelines
An IMM flowchart outlines the flow through the course. Very little detail is
presented other than module and lesson names. Listed below are some
guidelines for developing an IMM flowchart.
• Keep it simple. It should communicate to a person without IMM
experience.
• Don't show individual screens on the flowchart.
• Represent entire segments of the lesson by a single entry.
• Show just enough detail on lesson branching to depict the overall flow.
• Don't indicate specific menus, feedback, remediation, or help screens.
• Show the suggested sequence of the modules and lessons.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 44
Example of IMM
Flowchart
Figure 2 provides an example of an IMM flowchart.
LEGEND
represents an instructional screen
represents a menu option (branch),
not a screen
represents a question/feedback
screen
Opening/
Introduction
Main Menu
(4 Options)
Introduction
Objective
Why Are
Bearings Used?
Two Types of
Bearings
(2 Hot Spots)
Radial
Load
Thrust
Load
Question
Solid Bearings
Anti-Friction
Bearings
Exam
Basic Principles
of Solid Bearings
Two Types of Solid
Bearings (2 Options)
3 Layers in a
Split-Half Bearing
(3 Hot Spots)
Steel
Back
Aluminum
Surface
Lead &
Tin
Application of
Split-Half
Bearings
Lock Tabs
Questions
Question
How Sleeves are
Different from
Split-Half Bearings
Two Types of
Sleeve Bearings
(2 Hot Spots)
Aluminum
& Steel
Bronze & Other
Materials
Split-Half
Bearings
Sleeve
Bearings
Figure 2. Example of IMM Flowchart (Subject: Bearing Identification). 1
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 45
5.2 Storyboards
Definition of
Storyboard
Storyboards provide explicit information on how the IMM lessons will look and
function. Consideration is given to general principles and visual, audio, and
programming elements.
Purpose of
Storyboards
Storyboards are used to develop the actual screen presentations for IMM.
Storyboarding
Techniques
Storyboards can be developed in print format or automatically using a special
purpose storyboarding tool.
General IMM
Storyboard
Design Principles
There are a number of general IMM design principles which you should
consider when developing the IMM storyboards. Examples are:
• User-friendliness
• Menu-driven design
• Browsing alternatives
• Help functions
• Record tracking
• Navigation
• Impact of type of input devices
• User messages
• Cues
• Capabilities of selected authoring software
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 46
5.2.1 The Steps Involved in Storyboard Development
Action
1 Define the scope of the program and collect content.
• Know your audience.
• List objectives.
• Identify types of content.
• Obtain content.
• Verify content.
• Identify context of the content (before and after).
2 Agree on program standards (if they do not already exist).
3 Determine program structure and requirements:
• Menu structure
• List of lessons, subjects, and topics included
• Navigation options
• Available help functions
• Program flowchart
4 Determine a high-level instructional treatment for the program.
5 Chunk information into smaller segments.
6 Determine a detailed instructional treatment for each segment
(text, video, graphics, animation).
7 Document your designs in a storyboard following the guidelines
provided in this reference.
• Design instruction for each segment.
• Design inserted questions, reviews, and summaries for each
segment.
• Design practice exercises and/or test items (criterion
referenced) for larger unit of instruction.
8 Constantly communicate with the production crew to fine-tune your
design and to make sure it is implementable.
9 Involve subject matter experts at major milestones in validating the
program:
• Completion of storyboards for one topic
• Completion of video segment, graphics, etc.
• Completion of a prototype lesson
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 47
5.2.2 Guidelines for Storyboarding IMM
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Develop a user-friendly system. A user-
friendly system should:
• Be self-explanatory
• Make the system functions evident to
students
• Give students a sense of control
• Acknowledge student input (audio or
visual)
• Be interruptible at any point (e.g., pause
and continue, exit program, etc.)
• Permit easy reversal of actions
A user-friendly system prevents students
from becoming frustrated with the system and
allows them to concentrate on learning the
content of the program.
2 Provide a menu-driven system using the
following guidelines:
• Menus should be distinguishable from the
rest of the display.
• Menus should be consistent in design
and display.
• Use meaningful labels for menu items.
Menus display available functions so
students do not have to know or remember
what's available at any point. They simply
select from the range of possibilities offered
to them.
3 Provide a browsing alternative. First-time students can browse through the
entire program to get a feel of the content.
Students who have gone through the
program can use the feature for a quick
review or as a reference on the job.
4 If possible, present information on Windows
rather than on a separate screen.
Many computer operating systems and
software applications use a windows-style
user interface to display information. Since
windows are portions of the computer screen
that have distinct functions from the rest of
the screen, they give users a unique view of
information and make lessons easier to use.
5 Allow the student to request and receive
information so that the action to request
help does not affect the student's course of
action.
Help functions should provide the student
with supplemental information, explanations,
or assistance without affecting the student's
ongoing performance.
6 Clearly identify screen objects. An object should only be displayed
symbolically when its meaning is absolutely
clear. If symbols are used, they should
convey enough information as to their
purpose so that students will not be confused
by their function.
7
Provide instructions which describe screen
functions.
Learners need appropriate and clear
navigational tools and instructions for using
the tools to investigate even the most
effectively designed programs.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 48
Guideline Description Rationale
8 Provide student record tracking. This feature allows student performance
records (scores on tests, time spent on a
particular task, etc.) in a training program to
be collected and analysed.
9 Provide an optional navigation lesson for
new students including:
• Overview of the content
• Special features of the program
• Menu structure
• How to use a mouse
• How to get around in the program
Students can concentrate on learning the
content rather than the navigation
mechanism.
10 A mouse is an excellent alternative input
device. If a mouse is used, make sure
students learn how to use it.
A keyboard is good for text input. A mouse is
convenient for:
• Selecting an object for manipulation
• Positioning an object on a display
• Making a choice from a menu
11 When a mouse is used, make the
acceptance area larger than the actual
button for faster and easier selection,
especially when the button is small. Do not
overlap the acceptance area of different
targets.
• Students may click a little off the target
and nothing will happen.
• Overlapping acceptance areas may cause
incorrect actions to occur.
12 Provide intermediate feedback when the
wait to get a response from the computer is
longer than will be comfortable for the
student.
Students should never be left wondering if
they are supposed to do something or wait
for something to happen on the screen.
13 Provide error messages that are informative
and low-key. Error messages should:
• Be specific about the nature and the cause
of an error
• Be given immediately after an error occurs
• Inform students of the correct course of
action to take
• Be non-threatening
When an error occurs, students should never
be left wondering what happened and should
be informed as to how they should respond.
14 Provide cues to students at the end of an
instructional unit. However, cues may not
be appropriate when the students are in a
browsing mode or when they have total
control over the instructional sequence.
These cues provide a sense of closure and
fulfilment, and keep students oriented.
15 Know the capabilities and limitations of your
authoring language. Don't design some
features that cannot be implemented.
Always talk to your programmers.
You don't want to waste time designing IMM
which cannot be developed due to limitations
of authoring language.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 49
5.3 Visual elements
Guidelines for
Visual Elements
Visual information in an IMM course serves to enhance the effectiveness of
the training program. Visual elements include video, text, graphics and
animation.
Guidelines for
Video
Video is often a major element of IMM. A high level of detail is necessary in
the storyboard to ensure that the video producer has sufficient information to
get an accurate video shot
Guidelines for
Text
Text may be the primary method for presenting content to the learner or it may
serve to highlight certain information.
Guidelines for
Graphics and
Animation
Graphics and animation can be included in an IMM program to enhance
learning.
Guidelines for
Audio
Audio is often a major element of an IMM program. The audio part of a
storyboard is used by a narrator during audio production..
General
Guidelines for
Programming
The actual programming or authoring of an IMM program typically occurs in
the development phase. However, consideration needs to be given to a
number of programming issues during storyboard design.
Programming
Standards
It is wise to establish programming standards before you begin to develop the
storyboard. Although a certain degree of flexibility is necessary, and changes
may occur along the way, standards establish consistency throughout the
entire IMM program.
5.3.1 Guidelines for Visual Elements in a Storyboard
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Do not jam a screen with too much information at any
one point.
Cluttered screens reduce learning efficiency and
effectiveness (i.e., more time to learn and more
errors).
2 When presenting a large amount of relevant information,
display small chunks of information one at a time
through:
• Screen build-up
• Window overlay
• Icon buttons
• To reduce memory load.
• To facilitate recall and comprehension.
• To avoid overwhelming or intimidating students
with a large amount of information.
3 Use windows to group or separate certain information
from the rest of the display.
• To draw students' attention to a particular set of
data.
• To reduce the density of display on the screen
by superimposing one display on top of another.
• To establish student expectancy that certain
data will always appear in a certain format and
location.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 50
Guideline Description Rationale
4 Icon buttons work best for concrete concepts that can be
represented pictorially in miniature.
Icon buttons represent information that is available
in a compact, easy-to-understand, pictorial format;
and upon request of a student, discloses that
information.
5 Consider presenting information graphically and spatially
(e.g., in a diagram or a flowchart).
• Relationships among content or the overall
program structure can be more easily visualised
and remembered.
• A student's path through the program can be
easily displayed and remembered.
6 Techniques to keep students oriented:
• Place certain information in constant locations.
• Provide consistent layout for same types of screens.
• Maintain a constant perspective in a series of visuals.
If a change of perspective is necessary, cue students
to the change.
• Use letter sizes, colours and shapes as cues.
• Provide signposting information about a student's
current and past locations, what lies ahead, and how
to get there, all available for reference without moving
from the current location.
• Provide a bird's-eye view or long shot before zooming
into details.
Knowing where they are, how they got there, what
they can do, where they can go and how they can
get there gives students a sense of control.
Making this information available allows students to
concentrate on the program content rather than the
navigation mechanism.
Establishes a frame of reference.
7 To position information on a screen:
• Present key information in prominent areas (e.g.,
away from the border).
• Present information that changes from display to
display (the body of the instruction) in the center of
the screen.
• Present recurrent information (e.g., menu bars) in
constant locations.
• Present navigation buttons near the borders of the
screen.
To differentiate key information and attract/direct
attention, these cueing techniques are available:
• Arrows, labels, narration
• Display density, white space
• Separation of information into distinct objects
• Windows
• Colour, shape
• Highlighting, bordering, underlining
• Mixed type sizes and fonts
• Blinking
Position information on a screen to establish
expectancy and reduce memory load.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 51
Guideline Description Rationale
8 Guidelines for using the cueing techniques:
• Reserve blinking for critical situations requiring
immediate student attention or action.
• Borders should be distinct from the object enclosed.
• Highlighting can be achieved by either brightening the
area of interest or dimming the background.
• Limit highlighting to 10%of the display for
effectiveness.
• Avoid using too many cues at one time.
Note: Over-saturation reduces the effectiveness of these
techniques.
Helps the student focus on critical elements of the
instructional content.
9 Guidelines for using colours:
• Too many colours on a display reduce effectiveness
and aesthetic quality.
• Use yellow, green, or white for text. Blue is an
excellent background colour. But don't use blue for
text, edges, narrow lines, or small objects.
• Ensure enough contrast between the text colour and
background colour.
• Avoid distinctions based on the colour cue only.
When using colours, always use a second cue (e.g.,
label, shape, texture) for colour-blind students.
Proper use of colours helps to focus the student's
attention to relevant instructional content.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 52
5.3.2 The Video Storyboard
Video Storyboard
Guidelines
A video storyboard usually includes sketches of the shots and camera lenses,
angles, and movements. Sample standard shot abbreviations are:
CU = Close-up
MS = Medium Shot
LS = Long Shot
OS = Over-the-shoulder Shot
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Tips for preparing video storyboards:
• Present all information in three-shot sequences (long,
medium, and close-up) to establish visual orientation.
• Close-up shots grab attention and imply that something is
important; long shots establish frames of reference.
• A zoom-in focuses attention on a particular object while
maintaining visual orientation, providing a similar effect to a
three-shot sequence.
• A low camera angle looking up at a person implies that the
person is strong, powerful, and authoritative.
• A high camera angle looking down on a person makes the
person appear weak and inferior.
• Try to avoid static shots when shooting motion video.
• When showing something new, the subject must be focused
long enough for the audience to register what is being shown.
Once the audience has seen the subject in the shot, you don't
have to focus on it as long the next time we show it.
• Keep the main subject well lit and watch for possible
background distractions.
Professional conventions for video
production.
The eye focuses on lighted instead of dark
areas and movement instead of static
images.
2 Consider the following motion video formats:
• Facility/event walk-through (with an off-screen narrator)
• Lecture (talking head)
• Demonstration (show and tell)
• Interview
• Talk show
• Panel discussion
• Dramatisation
• Simulation
• Hybrid format
Use appropriate format for the content
presented and to maintain interest.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 53
Guideline Description Rationale
3 Two types of simulation:
• "First-person" simulation - the program creates as closely as
possible an actual situation (e.g., operating a piece of
equipment or trouble-shooting).
• "Third-person" (directed) simulation - the student vicariously
experiences some situation by directing a "person" in the
program to do whatever the student wants to do.
The "third-person" simulation may be more
appropriate when you want the students to
explore the consequences of both right and
wrong behaviours in a high-risk situation.
4 • Use audio and video to reinforce each other. Never present
two unrelated or clashing pieces of information in the two
channels.
• Design a visual message appropriate to the content. Make
sure that each visual ties in directly to the accompanying
audio.
Presenting unrelated or clashing information
or a visual which is inappropriate can confuse
the student.
5 Present a series of visuals quickly prior to or at the end of
instruction.
• Quick visual inserts presented before
instruction stimulate recall of prerequisites,
serve as an advance organiser, direct
attention to key information, and heighten
interest.
• Quick visual inserts presented after
instruction remind the audience of the key
information (what's repeated is more
important) and enhance retention (what's
repeated is remembered better).
6 Provide a quick showing of future events or consequences of
unacceptable performance (e.g., disaster caused by human
errors) prior to instruction.
• To impress the audience with the serious
outcomes associated with unacceptable
performance.
• To motivate the audience to adopt
acceptable behaviours or practice.
7 Show the same program content repeatedly in either an
identical format or a different perspective to draw attention
heighten interest, and enhance retention.
• What's repeated is remembered better.
• The mere fact that something is repeated
implies that it is important.
8 Criteria to determine the use of motion video versus still
frame:
• Use motion video if the content requires motion to clearly
depict the point.
• Motion video adds motivational value to training.
• Use still frames if production resources are limited without
compromising instructional effectiveness.
• Be aware of the storage limitation of your hardware: motion
video takes up more storage space than still frames.
Motion video can be used to represent reality
and help the student achieve a high degree
of transfer from training to on-the-job
performance. For this reason, motion video
is often used to support affective domain
objectives and simulations.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 54
5.3.3 Guidelines for Text Elements of a Storyboard
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Limit amount of text on screen.
It is more difficult and takes longer to read text on a
screen than in print. People read text on a computer
screen at a rate 28%slower than reading from a book.
2 • Regular text should be left-justified only.
Centre headings and titles.
• Use paging (not scrolling) when presenting
large amounts of text.
• Upper case should be reserved for emphasis
and titles only.
• Do not use hyphenations to break words
except for compound words.
Research data indicates that these guidelines make it
easier for students to read and comprehend text.
3 • Provide generous white space to separate
blocks of information.
• Use headings as content summarisers and
navigation aids.
• Convert sentences containing serial items to
lists.
• Organise complex information into tables to
help learners integrate program content.
Makes information more legible.
4 Use attention-getting techniques:
• Limit highlighting or boldface to 10%of the
display.
• Underlining is best for titles or headings.
• Use reverse video or blinking with extreme
discretion.
• Use mixed type sizes or fonts to differentiate
screen components.
• Use no more than three attention-getting
techniques on a single screen.
Note: Over-saturation reduces the effectiveness of
these techniques.
Helps to focus the student's attention on key information.
5 Verify the appropriateness of the colours used for
text under simulated presentation conditions.
The clarity of colours used for text will vary depending on
such factors as lighting of the room where the IMM
stations are and degree of proximity of the students to the
machine.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 55
5.3.4 Guidelines for Graphics and Animation Elements of Storyboard
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Use graphics or animation when:
• A realistic presentation (i.e., video)
may overwhelm the audience with too
much detail.
• Conditions or problems to be
portrayed occur so infrequently that a
video presentation is not possible.
Graphic or animation presentation can
direct audience attention to essential
information by highlighting the relevant
and omitting the irrelevant.
2 When a graphic is used for the purpose
of reducing irrelevant details and
highlighting key information, video may
be used together with or following the
graphic presentation.
Graphics can make a link to the real
world and enhance learning transfer.
3 Avoid biases or stereotypes in graphics
or animation (gender, ethnic groups,
etc.).
Students could find it insulting.
4 Use exaggeration and humour
appropriately to heighten student
interest and to facilitate recall.
Increases motivation. People often
remember exaggerated or humorous
information better.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 56
5.3.5 Guidelines for Audio
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Guidelines to determine the use of text or audio for primary
presentation of the program content:
• Use text when the message is long, complex, or uses
technical or unfamiliar terms.
• Use audio when the message is short, simple, requires
immediate student response, or when the visual
channel is overloaded.
• To be most effective, audio and text should
complement, not compete with, each other. Audio
should not interfere with reading from the text and vice
versa.
Research data indicates that these guidelines
make it easier for students to comprehend and
process information.
2 Audio should support rather than contradict or interfere
with visuals. A long silence may confuse students as to
what to do. When the video channel is presenting
something crucial, don't let the audio compete for attention.
Research data indicates that these guidelines
make it easier for students to comprehend and
process information.
3 Guidelines for scripting narration:
• Think visually.
• Consider students' language ability, subject matter
knowledge, and vocabulary.
• Use appropriate style and tone.
• Write the script for the ear, not the eye.
• Keep the language simple, active, and direct.
• Use short sentences.
• Watch out for acronyms, technical jargons, and
unfamiliar terms. Define them if you have to use them.
• Make the transitions from one concept to another clear.
• Every piece of narration must have a corresponding
visual.
• Avoid long pauses in visuals waiting for extended
narration to finish.
• Select appropriate narrators.
• Consider alternating male and female voices to provide
variety and to maintain audience attention.
• Read the script out loud to yourself and listen to how it
sounds.
These guidelines will make it easier for the
narrator or professional talent to record or read
the IMM audio.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 57
Guideline Description Rationale
4 Script format for professional talent/narrators:
• Always have your script typed.
• Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner.
• Use all caps.
• Specify how acronyms should be read.
• Spell out all numbers.
• Spell difficult words and names phonetically.
• Separate each letter in an abbreviation with a hyphen
(e.g., I-C-W).
• Describe non-verbal cues in parentheses.
• Indicate pauses by the word "PAUSE" in parentheses.
• Indicate emphases in parentheses if inflection is not
obvious.
• Double or triple space between lines.
• The script should not exceed three inches in length and
should use a legible type size.
These guidelines will make it easier for the
narrator or professional talent to record or read
the IMM audio.
5 Stick to the message. Tell the students only what is
relevant.
Production of irrelevant information is a waste of
money and time.
6 Keep the script short and simple. If the message is too
long, break it into chunks separated by instructional
activities (e.g., quizzes, reviews, hands-on exercises).
• Students may get bored if they receive
information passively from the program for an
extended period of time.
• Short audio segments are easier to program.
7 Use sound effects as cues:
• A beep or "oh-oh" to clue students that they've done
something incorrectly on the screen (e.g., response
formatted incorrectly).
• A tune associated with a certain event in the program
(e.g., quizzes inserted in the instruction, feedback for
incorrect responses).
Once the link between a sound effect and a
specific event is established, the sound effect
serves as an efficient navigation aid.
8 Keep production limits in mind (i.e., budget, time, technical
capabilities). Allow time for audio rework, which could
happen as the development effort proceeds.
Avoid reaching a point in the development effort
where you have run out of funds and "aren't quite
finished" with the program.
9 Provide students with headphones. Students in lab environment will not be distracted
by the audio from other student stations.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 58
5.3.6 Programming Standards Considerations
Consider Standards for:
Screen Type
• Course/lesson/subject title screen
• Introduction/overview screen
• Instructional screen
• Inserted question and feedback screen
• Review screen
• Summary screen
• Practice/exercise screen
• Test screen
• Help screen
Screen Layout
• Amount of text
• Text placement
• Headings
• Margins
• Text font and size
• Captions
• Colour (text, background, emphasis, borders)
• Attention-getting cues
• paragraph indentation
• Buttons (what - navigation/help/content; format - icon/text)
• Menus (structure, labels)
• Windows
Questions and Feedback
• Presentation of questions (text, audio, graphical, or combination)
• Type of student responses required (pointing, selecting, or text entry)
• Number of tries allowed
• Hint
• Type of feedback for each try (knowledge of result, explanation, remediation)
• Presentation of feedback (text, audio, graphical, or combination)
Presentation Sequence in
Each Segment
• Title screen
• Opening (motivational video segment)
• List of objectives
• Main body of instruction with inserted questions and periodic reviews
• Summary
• Exercise, practice, and test
Miscellaneous
• Naming conventions for video segments and files
• Transition
• Sign-on procedures
• Cursor placement on each new screen
• Voice - e.g., referring to students as "YOU" and the program as "I" or a third person
• Movement instruction (given via audio channel or buttons on the screen)
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 59
5.3.7 Storybook Guidelines for Programming
Guideline Description Rationale
1 Prepare a flowchart for the overall flow of
the program.
• It provides a top-level organiser
to guide the development of
storyboards.
• It conveys the complex
instructional flow in an
interactive program to the
programmer during the
development phase.
2 Define the abbreviations to be used in the
storyboard and communicate them to all
production team members (e.g., GR for
graphics, MV for motion video).
Defining abbreviations assures
that everybody uses the same
abbreviations that are understood
by everybody else.
3 Follow the program standards, unless you
can offer a convincing argument as to why
the standards are not applicable to your
design.
• Standards save time; they
eliminate the need for
reinvention and modification.
• Standards promote clarity and
consistency.
• Standards should be
periodically reviewed,
evaluated, and changed if
necessary.
5.3.8 A Checklist for Storyboarding
Directions: Place a check in the middle column if the corresponding guideline is included in
your program. If a guideline does not apply, indicate so with "N/A" for not
applicable. Document with comments where appropriate.
I. OVERALL PRINCIPLES Comments:
1. Program includes the events of instruction or a
rationale for omitting an event.
2. The instructional treatment is appropriate for the
content type.
3. Practice provided is appropriate for the content type.
4. Objectives provide complete coverage of content to
be taught.
5. Instruction and test items correlate with objectives.
II. INFORMATION TO BE INCLUDED IN A
STORYBOARD
Comments:
1. Identification information is complete.
2. Programming notes are complete.
3. Audio script is complete.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 60
4. Video information is complete.
5. Graphic information is complete.
6. Text information is complete.
III. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN GUIDELINES:
Increasing Interactivity
Comments:
1. Provides ample opportunities for meaningful interac-
tion.
2. Content is chunked into small segments; and
questions (with feedback), periodic reviews, and
summaries are built in.
3. Numerous questions are included, but do not
interrupt the continuity of the instructional flow.
4. Questions follow the instruction to force students to
search for and review necessary information.
5. Students are asked questions related to content that
has been taught, requiring them to use previously
learned knowledge to answer them.
6. Questions are at the application rather than the
memory level.
7. Rhetorical questions are included to get students to
think about the content, to stimulate their curiosity, or
as a transition between frames.
8. Opportunity is provided where the learner may
discover information through active exploration.
IV. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN GUIDELINES:
Learner Control
Comments:
1. Students are given the appropriate amount of learner
control.
2. Learner control designed can be implemented within
available resources.
3. Students are always given control over the following
elements: pacing, support information, navigation,
termination.
V. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN GUIDELINES:
Feedback Design
Comments:
1. Feedback is on the same screen with the question
and student response.
2. Feedback immediately follows the student response.
3. Feedback verifies correctness and explains why.
4. For incorrect responses, students are given a hint
and the opportunity to try again.
5. Feedback addresses student misconceptions or lack
of knowledge/skills.
6. Feedback is positive and does not encourage
incorrect responses.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 61
7. In a simulation, instructional feedback is provided in
addition to simulation responses.
VI STORYBOARD DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES:
General Principles
Comments:
1. The program is user-friendly.
2. The program is menu-driven.
3. A browsing alternative is provided.
4. Help functions are provided.
5. Student record tracking is provided.
6. An optional lesson on navigation is provided.
7. A lesson on mouse operation is provided when
necessary.
8. Messages are provided when the wait to get a
response is long.
9. Error messages are informative and low-key.
10. Cues are provided to indicate completion of an
instructional segment.
11. The authoring language is capable of implementing
all features designed.
12. The program provides clear instructions on how the
student is to respond.
VII PROGRAMMING Comments:
1. Programming acronyms are defined.
2. Program standards are followed (e.g., screen
type, screen layout, questions and feedback,
sequence of presentation within subjects).
VIII AUDIO Comments:
1. The script is appropriate for the target audience
(language, knowledge, vocabulary).
2. The style and tone are appropriate for the target
audience.
3. The script is conversational in nature.
4. The script language is simple, active, and direct.
5. Sentences are short.
6. Abbreviations, technical jargon, and unfamiliar terms
are avoided or defined if used.
7. Transitions between concepts are clear.
8. Every piece of narration has a corresponding shot.
9. There are no long pauses in a visual waiting for an
extended narration to finish.
10. The audio supports the visual rather than
contradicting or interfering.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 62
11. The script is written in a format suitable for
professional talents/narrators.
12. Sound effects are used as cues.
13. The script is short and simple.
14. Information is chunked appropriately.
15. Only relevant information is included in the script.
16. Audio designed can be implemented within
production limits.
IX. VISUAL: GENERAL Comments:
1. Screens are not cluttered.
2. Windows are used to group/separate information on
the screen.
3. Methods are used to orient students in the program
(e.g., placement of information, consistency of
screen layout).
4. When appropriate, information is presented
graphically.
5. Small chunks of information are presented one at a
time through use of windows, icon buttons, and
screen build-up.
6. Cueing techniques are used to attract/direct student
attention (e.g., arrows, labels, colour, highlight).
7. Attention-directing cues are gradually faded to
facilitate learning transfer.
8. Colour is used appropriately.
9. Information is positioned appropriately on the screen
(location of key information and menu bar).
X. VISUAL: VIDEO Comments:
1. Sketches of shots, camera lenses, angles, and
movements are included.
2. The motion video format used is appropriate for the
content (e.g., demonstration, simulation, lecture).
3. Audio and video reinforce each other.
4. The visual message (e.g., graphics, animation, still
frame, motion video) is appropriate for the content.
5. Shows content repeatedly in either an identical
format or different perspective to draw attention,
heighten interest, or to enhance retention.
6. Program appropriately uses motion video vs. still
frame.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 63
XI VISUAL: TEXT DISPLAY Comments:
1. Text is left-justified (no right justification). Headings
and titles are centred.
2. Paging (not scrolling) is used for large amounts of
text.
3. Upper case is used only for emphasis and titles.
4. Hyphens are not used except for compound words.
5. There is plenty of white space separating blocks of
information.
6. Headings are used as content summarisers and
navigation aids.
7. Lists are used for serial items.
8. Tables are used for presenting and integrating
complex information.
9. Attention-getting techniques are used appropriately
(e.g., highlight, bold, underline, colour).
10. Spelling, grammar, and punctuation are correct.
XII VISUAL: GRAPHICS / ANIMATION Comments:
1. Use of graphics/animation is appropriate for the
content.
2. When appropriate, video is used following a graphic
to enhance learning transfer.
3. Biases or stereotypes in graphics and animation are
avoided.
4. Exaggeration and humour are used appropriately to
heighten student interest and to facilitate recall.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 64
6 HOW TO DEVELOP IMM
Introduction This chapter addresses how to develop and produce an IMM course as
specified in the IMM storyboards. When you develop IMM you will be
concerned with all production requirements, such as programming, producing
video and recording audio, developing graphics and animation sequences,
pressing laser discs or digitising video, and preparing support materials such
as student workbooks.
6.1 Program the Lessons
Introduction This section presents guidelines on IMM programming. Quality programming
is a key element to maintaining the courseware. The guidelines presented
here are designed to improve the supportability of IMM lessons and help
decrease the amount of time required to program the lessons.
Programming
Guidelines
The following table lists various programming guidelines, what the guidelines
mean, and the rationale for implementing the guidelines.
Programming Guidelines During Development Phase of IMM
Guideline Rationale
1. Develop templates for
recurring routines.
Many IMM lessons will follow the same structure and will function in a similar manner. Try to
reuse as much code as you can to reduce time. Develop template or shell screens and copy
them as needed.
2. Develop object libraries. Group recurring screen elements (such as graphics which will appear in many lessons) into
object libraries for easy reuse and modification to save time.
3. Use "built-in" CMI
functions if possible.
Some IMM authoring systems have "built-in" computer-managed instruction (CMI) functions
and routines to track data. Use these features to save time.
4. Avoid excess use of CMI
capabilities.
If your authoring system does not have built-in CMI features and you have to develop your
own routines for record keeping and data analysis, you may find that you are using excessive
capabilities. Develop CMI to meet the requirements in the storyboard and tailor back the
design if your programming system will not easily support it. The minimum data you should
collect is test result data, total score, percent score, and whether the student passed or failed
according to the training standards.
5. Standardise the file
names for all CMI data.
This allows easy data consolidation and analysis across students and classes.
6. Keep track of the size
and storage requirements
for CMI files.
This is especially important for floppy-disk-based lessons. If you don't keep track of file sizes,
you may run out of room and either lock up the lesson or lose some of the data you need.
7. Keep good software
documentation.
One of the most important and costly aspects of IMM is maintenance. Detailed and accurate
program documentation is critical to lesson maintenance. Keep lists of all program variables
used and indicate where they are and what they are used for. Follow standard screen-
naming conventions. Clearly identify any libraries used and the specific items within the
libraries. Establish controls to keep those items from being modified without co-ordination.
Assign a single person to function as librarian. Configuration management is critical to
success.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 65
Guideline Rationale
8. Maintain master copies of
all program data.
Keep in one package a set of master lesson disks and all lesson specifications.
9. If programming in an
authoring systems
internal language, try to
program within a screen.
Some authoring systems provide an internal programming language to supplement the basic
functions of the authoring tool. If you can program within a screen, you will significantly
reduce access times while running the lesson.
10. Ensure the integrity of
students' files.
Students' files should be protected so that not just anyone can get access to their records.
Files can be easily password-protected with most IMM software programs.
11. Formatively evaluate the
IMM software before
implementing the
program.
Even though most IMM programmers will take painstaking efforts to ensure the program's
flawless execution, bugs can still exist. Programming flaws which cause unintentional
directional flows or unanticipated characters to appear can cause a student to think the entire
program is poorly designed.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 66
6.2 Produce Visual Displays and Record Audio
Introduction This section presents guidelines for producing all IMM visual displays and
recording audio.
Definition of
Visual Displays
The visual displays include full-motion video, still-frame video or photographs.
Each visual display required in the IMM will be described in detail on the
storyboard.
6.2.1 Guidelines for Producing Full Motion Video
Guidelines for
Producing Full-
Motion Video
Using full-motion video in IMM is a very effective way to present information.
Motion sequences are often recommended for demonstrating operational
procedures. Producing full-motion video can be expensive, especially if
professional talent is used, crews need to tape on location, special effects are
used, and post-video production (editing) is extensive.
Guidelines Rationale
1. Ensure that sets are appropriate to actual
work environment.
Enhances realism of IMM.
2. Use consistent camera angles, lighting, and
distance to emphasise similarities between
objects. For analog IVD, show differences
between objects by using the same shot and
varying only the item that changes.
Reduces confusion for student
and can reduce amount of time
required to produce video.
3. If analog IVD is produced, tape and edit
"cause and effect" sequences one after the
other so they will appear side by side on the
videodisc.
Provides a much smoother
transition between video scenes,
and a quicker response time back
to the student.
4. Use the techniques "up from black" at the
beginning and "fade to black" at the end of
each video sequence.
Allows smooth transitions between
scenes and from video to graphics
or text.
5. Provide transition screens when moving from
a wide-angle to an extreme close-up and
highlight where the next screen will focus.
Helps to reinforce the relationship
from wide- angle to close-up view.
6. Use video or graphic window overlays to
show extreme close-ups of small objects such
as knobs and switches in the context of the
wider- angle view.
Allows the student to see things in
detail.
7. If the storyboard is automated, use a laptop
computer with the storyboard during video
production to immediately enter SMPTE
codes for selected shots onto storyboard.
Provides an automated edit-
decision list and greatly reduces
amount of time needed in post-
video production.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 67
6.2.2 Guidelines for Recording Audio
Guideline Rationale
1. If analog IVD is being produced, use one
sound track for narration and the other for
sound effects.
Cost-effective. Narration can be recorded on one track while
sound effects are recorded on the other.
2. In some instances, use both tracks to record
narration.
Narration can be selectively presented. For example,
narration in English can be stored on track 1 and narration in
another language can be stored on track 2.
3. When analog audio is used, match the audio
with the associated visual.
The visual must be displayed for the same length of time as
the audio presentation.
4. Use a professional narrator and recording
studio during production.
Greatly increases quality of IMM and reduces costs during
production. While there are costs associated with using
professional talent, money is often saved because it doesn't
take them as long to learn and deliver their lines.
6.2.3 Guidelines for Displays in an IMM Program
Type of
Display
Guidelines Rationale
Text
Follow specifications in storyboard for colour and
font.
Product will be produced to match
specification.
1. Follow sketches or drawings shown in
storyboard.
Product will be consistent with
specification.
2. Use computer to generate graphics when
possible.
Can get better detail and more
sophisticated- looking graphic.
3. Identify graphics library code. Other developers can access the
graphic for their lessons.
4. Program graphics to appear on the screen
before text or captions.
Easier for the student to comprehend
presentation information.
5. Program large or complex graphics to appear
on the screen in logical sections. Each section
should finish drawing before the next begins.
Makes it easier for the student to view
and understand what is being
presented.
6. Program graphics so that the layer farthest
away from the viewer is drawn first and finish
with the items that are closest to the viewer.
Makes it easier for the student to view
and understand what is being
presented.
Graphics
7. Use an arrow instead of a box or circle to
highlight graphic objects.
Will help to avoid alignment problems
between hardware systems.
1. If motion is the point of an animation, do not
begin the animation until the entire screen
appears, then prompt the student to begin the
animation.
Helps to focus the student's attention on
key elements.
Animation
2. If the result of motion is the focus, draw the
object and then begin the animation. After the
animation occurs, add labels, captions, text on
the screen.
Supports learner control guidelines.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 68
6.3 Develop Supporting Materials
Introduction Instructor and user guides are often developed to support an IMM program.
This section explains the purpose of supporting materials.
Purpose of
Supporting
Materials
Supporting materials should outline and describe all manual procedures
required to load, start and complete the IMM program. The guides should
also spell out procedures for managing the IMM program.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 69
7 Bibliography
1. Allen, B. S. (1986). A Theoretical Framework for Interactivating Linear Video. Journal of
Computer-Based Instruction, 13, 107-112.
2. Allessi, S. M. and Trollip, S. R. (1985). Computer-based Instruction Methods and
Development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
3. Anglin, G. J. and Kwak, E. (1991). Research on Pictures: Knowledge Acquisition, Visual
Thinking, and Cognitive Skill Acquisition: A Guide to the Literature, 1986-1990. Paper
presented at the Annual Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology, Orlando, Florida, February
4. Apple Computer, Inc. (1987). Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface.
Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
5. Arnone, M. P. and Grabowski, B. L. (1991). Effect of Variations in Learner Control on
Children's Curiosity and Learning from Interactive Video. In M. R. Simonson and C. Hargrave
(Eds.), Proceedings of the 1991 Convention of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology (45-67). Orlando, Florida: Association for Educational
Communications and Technology.
6. Arwady, J. and Gayeski, D. M. (1989). Using Video: Interactive and Linear Designs.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
7. Aspillaga, M. (1991a). Implications of Screen Design Upon Learning. Journal of Educational
Technology Systems, 20(1), 53-58.
8. Aspillaga, M. (1991b). Screen Design: Location of Information and its Effects on Learning.
Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18(3), 89-92.
9. Barker, P. G. (1984a). MUMEDALA3/4An Approach to Multi-media Authoring. British Journal
of Educational Technology, 15(1), 4-13.
10. Barker, P. G. (1984b). MUMEDALA: An Approach to Multi-media Authoring. Computers and
Education, 8(4), 463-469.
11. Berry, L. (1991). Visual Complexity and Pictorial Memory: A Fifteen Year Research
Perspective. In M. R. Simonson and M. Treimer (Eds.), Proceedings of Selected Research
Paper Presentations at the 1985 Annual Convention of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology (92-102). Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
12. Bork, A. (1990). Practical Techniques Useful in Authoring Technology-based Learning
Material. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 17(2), 53-60.
13. Borsook, T. (1991). Harnessing the Power of Interactivity for Instruction. In M. R. Simonson
and C. Hargrave (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1991 Convention of the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology (103-117). Orlando, Florida: Association for
Educational Communications and Technology.
14. Braden, R. (1986). Visuals for Interactive Video: Images for a New Technology. Educational
Technology, 26(5), 18-23.
15. Brandt, R. H. (1987). Videodisc Training: A Cost Analysis. Falls Church, Virginia: Future
Systems Inc.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 70
16. Brozo, W. G., Schmelzer, R. V. and Spires, H. A. (1983). The Beneficial Effect of Chunking
on Good Readers' Comprehension of Expository Prose. Journal of Reading, 26, 442-445.
17. Bunzel, M. J. and Morns, S. K. (1992). Multimedia Applications Development Using DVI(r)
Technology. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
18. Buxton, W. (1989). Introduction to This Special Issue on Nonspeech Audio. Human-Computer
Interaction, 4, 1-9.
19. Card, S. K., Pavel, M. and Farell, J. E. (1984). Window-based Computer Dialogues. In B.
Shackel (Ed.), Human-Computer Interaction3/4INTERACT '84. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
20. Carrier, C. A. and Jonassen, D. H. (1988). Adapting Courseware to Accommodate Individual
Differences. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Instructional Designs for Microcomputer Courseware.
Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
21. Carver, R. P. (1970). Effect of "Chunked" Typography on Reading Rate and Comprehension.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 54, 288-296.
22. Chung, J. and Reigeluth, C. M. (1992). Instructional Prescriptions for Learner Control.
Educational Technology. October, 14-19.
23. Clark, R. C. (1989). Developing Technical Training (A Structured Approach for the
Development of Classroom and Computer-Based Instructional Materials). Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
24. Cook, E. K. (1990). The Use of Macintosh Authoring Languages in Effective Computer-
Assisted Instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 18(2), 109-122.
25. Copeland, P. (1988). Interactive Video: What the Research Says. Media in Education and
Development, 2(2), 60-63.
26. Dalton, D. W. and Hannafin, M. J. (1987). Examining the Effects of Varied Computer-Based
Reinforcement on Self-Esteem and Achievement: An Exploratory Study. Association for
Educational Data Systems Journal, 18(3), 172-182.
27. Dean, C. T. (1988). Storyboarding for Computer-Based Training: A Technique in Transition.
Performance and Instruction, 27(5), 8-14.
28. DeBloois, M. L. (1982). Videodisc/Microcomputer Courseware Design. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
29. DODI 1322.20, Development and Management of Interactive Multimedia for Military Training,
14 March 1991.
30. Duchastel, P. C. (1986). Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction Systems: The Nature of
Learner Control. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2(3), 379-393.
31. Duchastel, P. C. (1988). Display and Interaction Features of Instructional Texts and
Computers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 58-65.
32. Duchnicky, R. L. and Kolers, P. A. (1983). Readability of Text Scrolled on Visual Display
Terminals as a Function of Window Size. Human Factors, 25(6), 683-692.
33. Dwyer, F. M. (1978). Strategies for Improving Visual Learning. State College, Pennsylvania:
Learning Services.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 71
34. Fleming, M. and Levie, W. H. (1978). Instructional Message Design. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
35. Frase, L. T. and Schwartz, B. J. (1979). Typographical Cues That Facilitate Comprehension.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 197-206.
36. Frick, T. W. (1989). Bayesian Adaptation During Computer-Based Tests and Computer-
Guided Practice Exercises. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 5(1), 89-114.
37. Frick, T. W. (1990). A Comparison of Three Decision Models for Adapting the Length of
Computer-Based Mastery Tests. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 6(4), 479-513.
38. Gagné, R. M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and the Theory of Instruction (4th ed.).
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
39. Garner, K. H. (1991). 20 Rules for Arranging Text on a Screen. In R. B. Frantzreb (Ed.),
Training and Development Yearbook, 1991 Edition (4.16-4.18). Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
40. Gaver, W. W. (1989). The SonicFinder: An Interface That Uses Auditory Icons. Human-
Computer Interaction, 4, 67-94.
41. Gay, G. (1986). Interaction of Learner Control and Prior Understanding in Computer-Assisted
Video Instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 225-227.
42. Gayeski, D. (1983). Corporate and Instructional Video Design and Production. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
43. Gillingham, M. G. (1988). Text in Computer-Based Instruction: What the Research Says.
Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 15(1), 1-6.
44. Glynn, S. M., Britton, B. K. and Tillman, M. H. (1985). Typographical Cues in Text:
Management of the Reader's Attention. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.). The Technology of Text
(Volume Two): Principles for Structuring, Designing and Displaying Text (192-209).
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
45. Grabinger, R. S. (1984). CRT Text Design: Psychological Attributes Underlying the Evaluation
of Models of CRT Text Displays. Journal of Visual Verbal Languaging, 4(1), 17-39.
46. Grabinger, R. S. (1985). Relationships Among Text Format Variables in Computer-Generated
Text. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology, Research and Theory Division, Las Vegas, Nevada,
January.
47. Grabinger, R. S. (1989). Screen Layout Design: Research into the Overall Appearance of the
Screen. Computers in Human Behavior, 5, 175-183.
48. Grabinger, R. S. and Amedeo, D. (1985). CRT Text Layout: Prominent Layout Variables. In
M. R. Simonson and M. Treimer (Eds.), Proceedings of Selected Research Paper
Presentations at the 1985 Annual Convention of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
49. Griffin, R. E. (1992). A Visual Primer: The Manager's Guide to Preparing a Visual
Presentation. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 72
50. Griffin, R. E., Miller, S. K., Whiteside, J. A. and Whiteside, M. F. (1985). Business People,
Personal Computers and Graphics Programs Come Together; Visual Literacy Cruising into
the Future. Bloomington, Indiana: Western Sun Printing Co., Inc.
51. Grimes, T. (1990). Audio-Video Correspondence and Its Role in Attention and Memory.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 38(3), 15-26.
52. Hannafin, M. J. (1984). Guidelines for Determining Locus of Instructional Control in the
Design of Computer-Assisted Instruction. Journal of Instructional Development, 7(3), 6-10.
53. Hannafin, M. J. (1989). Interaction Strategies and Emerging Instructional Technologies:
Psychological Perspectives. Canadian Journal of Educational Communications,18(3), 167-
179.
54. Hannafin, M. J. and Colamaio, M. E. (1987). The Effects of Variations in Lesson Control and
Practice on Learning from Interactive Video. Educational Communications and Technology
Journal, 35(4), 203-212.
55. Hannafin, M. J. and Hooper, S. (1989). An Integrated Framework for CBI Screen Design and
Layout. Computers in Human Behavior, 5, 155-165.
56. Hannafin, M. J. and Peck, K. L. (1988). The Design, Development, and Evaluation of
Instructional Software. New York: Macmillan.
57. Hannafin, M. J. and Rieber, L. P. (1989). Psychological Foundations of Instructional Design
for Emerging Computer-Based Instructional Technologies: Part I. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 37(2), 91-101.
58. Hartley, J. (1987). Designing Electronic Text: The Role of Print-Based Research. Educational
Communications and Technology Journal, 35(1), 3-17.
59. Hathaway, M. D. (1984). Variables of Computer Screen Design and How They Affect
Learning. Educational Technology, 24(1), 7-11.
60. Heines, J. M. (1984). Screen Design Strategies for Computer-Assisted Instruction. Bedford,
Massachusetts: Digital Press.
61. Higginbotham-Wheat, N. (1988). Perspectives on Implementation of Learner Control in CBI.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association,
Lexington, Kentucky, November (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 305 898).
62. Higginbotham-Wheat, N. (1990). Learner Control: When Does it Work? In M. R. Simonson
and C. Hargrave (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1990 Convention of the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology. Anaheim, California: Association for
Educational Communications and Technology (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
323 930).
63. Hooper, S. and Hannafin, M. J. (1986). Variables Affecting the Legibility of Computer-
Generated Text. Journal of Instructional Development, 9(4), 22-28.
64. Huber, D. M. and Runstein, R. E. (1989). Modern Recording Techniques (3rd Ed.). Carmel,
Indiana: Howard W. Sams and Company.
65. Hunka, S. (1989). Design Guidelines for CAI Authoring Systems. Educational Technology,
29(11), 12-17.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 73
66. Isaacs, G. (1987). Text Screen Design for Computer-Assisted Learning. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 1(18), 41-51.
67. Iuppa, N. V. (1984). A Practical Guide to Interactive Video Design. White Plains, New York:
Knowledge Industry Publications, Inc.
68. Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.) (1982). The Technology of Text: Principles for Structuring, Designing,
and Displaying Text. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
69. Jonassen, D. H. (1985a). Interactive Lesson Designs: A Taxonomy. Educational
Technology, 25(6), 7-17.
70. Jonassen, D. H. (1985b). Interactive Lesson Designs: A Taxonomy. Educational Technology,
25(7), 7-17.
71. Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.) (1985c). The Technology of Text (Volume Two): Principles for
Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational
Technology Publications.
72. Jonassen, D. H. (1988). Instructional Designs for Microcomputer Courseware. Hillsdale, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
73. Jonassen, D. H. (1989). Functions, Applications, and Design Guidelines for Multiple Window
Environments. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 185-194.
74. Jonassen, D. and Hannum, W. H. (1987). Research-based Principles for Designing
Computer Software. Educational Technology, 27(12), 56-62.
75. Jones, M. K. (1989). Human-Computer Interaction: A Design Guide. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Technology Publications.
76. Kang, T. J. and Muter, P. (1989). Reading Dynamically Displayed Text. Behavior and
Information Technology, 8(1), 33-42.
77. Keller, J. and Kopp, T. (1987). An Application of the ARCS Model of Motivational Design. In
C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional Theories in Action. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
78. Kinzie, M. B., Sullivan, H. J. and Berdel, R. L. (1988). Learner Control and Achievement in
Science Computer-Assisted Instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 299-303.
79. Kolers, P. A., Duchnicky, R. L. and Ferguson, D. C. (1981). Eye Movement Measurement of
Readability of C.R.T. Displays. Human Factors, 23(5), 517-527.
80. Kruk, R. S. and Muter, P. (1984). Reading of Continuous Text on Video Screen. Human
Factors, 26(3), 339-345.
81. Kulhavy, R. W. (1977). Feedback in Written Instruction. Review of Educational Research,
47(1), 211-232.
82. Laurillard, M. (1984). Interactive Video and the Control of Learning. Educational Technology,
24(6), 7-15.
83. Lehrman, P. D. and Tully, T. (1991). Catch a Wave: Digital Audio. MacUser, October, 94-
103.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 74
84. Litchfield, B. C. (1990). Criteria for Evaluating Videodisc Interactivity. Performance and
Instruction, 29(6), 23-26.
85. Lucas, L. (1991). Visually Designing the Computer-Learner Interface. Educational
Technology, July, 56-58
86. Lucas, L. (1992). Interactivity: What Is It and How Do You Use It? Journal of Educational
Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1(1), 7-10.
87. Mager, R. (1961). On Sequencing of Instructional Content. Psychological Reports, 9, 405-
413.
88. Marchionini, G. (1988). Hypermedia and Learning: Freedom and Chaos. Educational
Technology, 28(11). 8-12.
89. Mason, J. M. and Kendall, J. R. (1979). Facilitating Reading Comprehension Through Text
Structure Manipulation. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 25, 68-76. Cited in
O'Shea, L. J., and Sindelar, P. T. (1983). The Effects of Segmenting Written Discourse on the
Reading Comprehension of Low- and High-Performance Readers. Reading Research
Quarterly, 18, 458-465.
90. Mattoon, J. S., Klein, J. D. and Thurman, R. A. (1991). Learner Control Versus Computer
Control in Instructional Simulation. In M. R. Simonson and C. Hargrave (Eds.), Proceedings
of the 1991 Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology
(481-498). Orlando, Florida: Association for Educational Communications and Technology.
91. Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component Display Theory. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-
Design Theories and Models: An Overview of Their Current Status. Hillsdale, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 279-333.
92. Merrill, M. D. (1984). What is Learner Control? In R. K. Bass and C. D. Dills (Eds.),
Instructional Development: The State of the Art II. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
93. Merrill, M. D. (1985). Where is the Authoring in Authoring Systems? Journal of Computer-
Based Instruction, 12(4), 90-96.
94. Merrill, P. F. and Bunderson, C. V. (1981). Preliminary Guidelines for Employing Graphics in
Instruction. Journal of Instructional Development, 4(4), 2-9.
95. MIL-HDBK-284, Interactive Multimedia for Military Training, Parts 1-3, 22 July 1992.
96. Milheim, W. D. (1990). The Effects of Pacing and Sequence Control in an Interactive Video
Lesson. Educational and Training Technology International, 27(1), 7-19.
97. Milheim, W. D. and Azbell, J. W. (1988). How Past Research on Learner Control Can Aid in
the Design of Interactive Video Materials. In M. R. Simonson and J. K. Frederick (Eds.),
Proceedings of the 1988 Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology (459-472). New Orleans, Louisiana: Association for Educational Communications
and Technology (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 295 652).
98. Miller, R. L. (1990). Ten Good Reasons: Learning Benefits of Interactive Technologies. The
Videodisc Monitor, February, 15-17.
99. MIL-STD-1379D, Military Training Programs, 5 December 1990.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 75
100. Misanchuk, E. R. (1989a). Learner Preferences for Screen Text Attributes in a Macintosh
Microcomputer Learning Environment. In Transitions: Proceedings of the AMTEC '89
Conference. Edmonton, AB: Association for Media and Technology in Education in Canada.
101. Misanchuk, E. R. (1989b). Learner/User Preferences for Fonts in Microcomputer Screen
Displays. Canadian Journal of Educational Communication, 18(3), 193-205.
102. Misanchuk, E. R. (1990). Learner/User Preferences for Leading (Vertical Spacing) in
Microcomputer Screen Displays. Unpublished manuscript, University of Saskatchewan,
Extension Division, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
103. Morariu, J. (1988). Hypermedia in Instruction and Training: The Power and the Promise.
Educational Technology, 28(11), 17-19.
104. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M. and O'Dell, J. K. (1988). Text Density Level as a Design Variable
in Instructional Displays. Educational Communications and Technology Journal, 36(1), 103-
115.
105. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Schultz, C. W. and O'Dell, J. K. (1989). Learner Preferences for
Varying Screen Densities Using Realistic Stimulus Materials with Single and Multiple Designs.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 37(3), 53-60.
106. Muter, P., Kruk, R. S., Buttigieg, M. A. and Kang, T. J. (1988). Reader-Controlled
Computerized Presentation of Text. Human Factors, 30(4), 473-486.
107. Novick, M. R. and Lewis, C. (1974). Prescribing Test Length for Criterion-Referenced
Measurement (Tech Bull. No 18). Iowa City, Iowa: American College Testing Program.
108. Olsen, S. L. and Huckin, T. H. (1983). Principles of Communication for Science and
Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 129-130.
109. Pettersson, R. (1989). Visuals for Information: Research and Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
110. Pioneer Video. (1984). Post-Production and Formatting Information. Montvale, Jew Jersey:
Pioneer Video, Inc.
111. Rattanapian, V. (1992). The Effects of Learner Characteristics and an Evaluation Override
Option on Achievement, Attitude, and Pattern of Program Use in Computerized Drill and
Practice. Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.
112. Reigeluth, C. M. (1979). TICCIT to the Future: Advances in Instructional Theory for CAI.
Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 6(2), 40-46.
113. Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.) (1983). Instructional-Design Theories and Models: An Overview of
Their Current Status. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
114. Ross, S. M., Morrison, G. R. and O'Dell, J. K. (1988). Obtaining More Out of Less Text in CBI:
Effects of Varied Text Density Levels as a Function of Learner Characteristics and Control
Strategy. Educational Communications and Technology Journal, 36(3), 131-142.
115. Ross, S., Morrison, G. and O'Dell, J. (1990). Uses and Effects of Learner Control of Context
and Instructional Support in Computer-Based Instruction. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Association of Educational Communications and Technology, Anaheim,
California, February.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 76
116. Salisbury, D. F., Richards, B. F. and Klein, J. D. (1985). Designing Practice: A Review of
Prescriptions and Recommendations from Instructional Design Theories. Journal of
Instructional Development, 8(4), 9-19.
117. Santiago, R. S. and Okey, J. R. (1990). Sorting Out Learner Control Research: Implications
for Instructional Design and Development. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Anaheim, California, February.
118. Schaffer, L. C. and Hannafin, M. J. (1986). The Effects of Progressive Interactivity on
Learning from Interactive Video. Educational Communications and Technology Journal, 34,
89-96.
119. Schloss, P. J., Wisniewski, L. A. and Cartwright, G. O. (1988). The Differential Effect of
Learner Control and Feedback in College Students' Performance on CAI Modules. Journal of
Educational Computing Research, 4(2), 141-149.
120. Schneiderman, B. (1987). Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-
Computer Interaction. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
121. Schwier, R. A. and Misanchuk, E. R. (1988). The Effect of Interaction and Perceived Need for
Training on Learning from Computer-Based Instruction. Canadian Journal of Educational
Communication, 17(3), 147-158.
122. Schwier, R. A. and Misanchuk, E. R. (1993). Interactive Multimedia Instruction. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
123. Seidel, R., Wagner, H., Rosenblaff, R., Hillelsohn, M. and Stelzer, J. (1978). Learner Control
of Instructional Sequencing Within an Adaptive Tutorial CAI Environment. Instructional
Science, 7, 37-80.
124. Shapiro, A. F. and Gibbs, W. J. (1993). Design Considerations When Building Multimedia
Instructional Systems. Multimedia and Videodisc Monitor, March, 17-21.
125. Smith, S. L. and Mosler, J. N. (1984). Design Guidelines for the User Interface for Computer-
Based Information Systems. The MITRE Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts, 01730,
Electronic Systems Division. (Available from the National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia.) Cited in Schneiderman, B. (1987). Designing the User Interface:
Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-
Wesley Publishing.
126. Steinberg, E. R. (1977). Review of Student Control in Computer-Assisted Instruction. Journal
of Computer-Based Instruction, 3(3), 84-90.
127. Tennyson, R. D. (1980). Instructional Control Strategies and Content-Structure as Design
Variables in Concept Acquisition Using Computer-Based Instruction. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 72(4), 525-532.
128. Tennyson, R. D., Park, O. and Christensen, D. (1985). Adaptive Control of Learning Time
and Content Sequence in Concept Learning Using Computer-Based Instruction. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 77(4), 481-491.
129. Thompson, J. G. and Jorgensen, S. (1989). How Interactive is Instructional Technology?
Alternative Models for Looking at Interactions Between Learners and Media. Educational
Technology, 29(2), 24-26.
Instructional Design for Multimedia: Page 77
130. Wager, W. and Wager, S. (1985). Presenting Questions, Processing Responses, and
Providing Feedback in CAI. Journal of Instructional Development, 8(4), 2-8.
131. Walklin, L. (1982). Instructional Techniques and Practice. ST(P) Handbooks for Further
Education. Cheltenham, England: Stanley Thornes Ltd.
132. Watkinson, J. (1988). The Art of Digital Audio. London: Focal Press.
133. White, J. V. (1983). Mastering Graphics. New York: Bowker.