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Mindanao State University Iligan Institute of Technology College of Arts and Social Sciences Department of Psychology
OUTLINED REPORT The Use of Computer in Research Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Psychological Research
In partial fulfillment for the Requirements of the course PSYCH 103 – Experimental Psychology
Submitted to: DR. ALMA G. MARANDA Instructor
Submitted by: Donna Gift A. Sarmiento Floralice Hope S. Servano Reslin Pabe P. Sistona
JULY 2011
The Use of Computers in Research I. II. Computers in historical perspective Modern Computer A. Special purpose B. General purpose Sizes of Computer A. Mainframe computers (Largest) B. Minicomputer C. Microcomputer i. Central Processing Unit ii. Memory iii. Keyboard iv. Screen v. Disks vi. Printer Computer Technology A. Software B. Hardware Using Statistical Package Developing your own program Computer in research A. Computer networks for data gathering and analysis B. Computer analysis of physiological events C. The computer as a research tool D. Computer-generated speech perception and production of synthetic speech E. Human-computer interaction F. The computer in operant-conditioning systems G. Clinical assessment of biofeedback data H. Supercomputing in psychology I. Teaching applications of microcomputers J. Networking systems The great value of computers Computer simulation Pitfalls and limitation A. Computer paralysis of the laboratory B. The shotgun disaster C. Don’t lose track of your raw data D. The law of the hammer revisited
III.
IV.
V. VI. VII.
VIII. IX. X.
The Use of Computers in Research
I.
Computers in historical perspective The magnificent contributions of the computer to so many areas of our can only be properly understood and appreciated when we view human striving throughout history to construct calculating machines. The first aid for calculation, of course, was our 10 fingers. Numerous other primitive counting systems were used such as that of the sheepherder who placed a stone in a pile for each sheep that went into the fields. Somewhat later, as quantitative thinking developed, a formal instrument, the abacus, was created as an aid to making rapid, accurate calculations. Logic machines, which solve problems in formal logic such as the inferences have been basic to the modern computer. Apparently, the firs logic machine was a mechanical device developed in the modern century by Ramon Lull, a Spanish theologian and visionary. Many logic devices have been developed, but the first definitely recorded machine devoted to calculation was constructed in 1642 by the famous mathematician Pascal. In 1671, at the age of 19 the great philosopher Leibniz, influenced by Lull’s work, invented a versatile machine that could count, add, subtract, multiply and divide.
II.
Modern Computer Computers today differ from their predecessors primarily in that they have effective memories. This advance was first made possible by the electronic vacuum tube that could accept and store numbers for future automatic calculations.
A. Special purpose A special-purpose computer performs specific and limited operations such as those done by your pocket calculator or those performed in a car that tell you the number of miles you have driven, your rate of gasoline consumption and so on.
B. General purpose The concept of a general-purpose machine known as a universal turing machine was named after the World War II. The general-purpose computer with appropriate programming can, thus, in principle, can solve any problem that is solvable.
III.
Sizes of Computer With regards to size computer are classified as follows:
A. Mainframe computers Mainframe computers, which are the largest. Mainframe and minicomputers are used in large research laboratories.
B. Minicomputer It is also used in government and business where high rates and amounts of information are required.
C. Microcomputer Most behavioral data analysis can be accomplished with the microcomputer. With the development of the high-speed electronic digital computer, research project that handle an enormous amount of data and carry out an amazing number of calculations allow us to conduct research projects that we could only dream years ago. A computer is a machine that consists of a large number of electronic circuits. It will receive information, process that information and output that information. The function of the computer is to compute, which means to perform arithmetic and logical information. i. Central Processing Unit The CPU in microcomputers is a microprocessor that processes information.
This is the computer’s “brain.”
ii. Memory The memory is used to temporarily store data. The size of memory is indicated by an approximation of how many bytes there are. One K or kilobyte is equivalent to 1024 bytes.
iii. Keyboard The keyboard is the typical input device used to feed information to the CPU. iv. Screen There are two types of a screen, a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) through which we communicate with the system. A display unit is typically connected to a CRT so that we can observe the information that we have entered into the CPU. v. Disks vi. Printer A printer provides the printout of materials and communication facilities which we can use to transmit information from our computer to others. Disks are used to store programs and data.
IV.
Computer Technology Computer technology can be divided into two main categories: software and hardware.
A. Software Software refers to the instructions that we give to the machine to program it to carry out our computations. It includes all the procedures that we instruct the computer to use.
B. Hardware The mechanical and electronic components of a computer constitute the computer’s hardware – it is the machine itself.
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Using Statistical Package The manual for statistical packages provides instructions on the capabilities of the package and how to conduct your analysis. Such manuals typically illustrate program use in a step-by-step fashion.
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Developing your own program To be more flexible, we can construct our own instructions using a computer language. The advantage of writing your own program is that the computer can do precisely what you want.
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Computer in research A. Computer networks for data gathering and analysis B. Computer analysis of physiological events C. The computer as a research tool D. Computer-generated speech perception and production of synthetic speech E. Human-computer interaction F. The computer in operant-conditioning systems G. Clinical assessment of biofeedback data H. Supercomputing in psychology I. Teaching applications of microcomputers J. Networking systems
VIII.
The great value of computers The field of artificial intelligence is a vast additional means of using computers. Computers have also been used widely in assessment. Computerassisted assessment has facilitated the acquisition of clinical data and decisions based upon those data.
The computer is certainly with us and its functions and contributions no doubt will continue to expand in many aspects of our lives. Networking, the ability of computers to communicate with each other, certainly is expanding.
While much of the computer’s use is in conducting statistical analyses, it is also very useful for non numerical operations such as in word processors.
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Computer simulation Another application is one that simulates the role of a psychotherapist. The computer reacts to a patient’s remarks, thus imitating therapeutic processes. The patient enters statements into the computer, which is programmed to respond appropriately as would a human therapist. Some individuals, particularly those not knowledgeable about behavioral research, have advocated the use of computers to simulate the behavior of both animals and humans.
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Pitfalls And Limitation Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) permit the use of sophisticated computer software with minimal or no reading skills and only superficial knowledge of the computer and software. GUI is a term used to describe computer programs which allow the user to manipulate information by moving picture or symbols rather than by entering text.
A. Computer Paralysis Of The Laboratory When applied for the conduct of experiments, Coren (1986) warns against laboratories suffering “computer paralysis.” This is “a technologically induced disease that occurs when researchers have not been inoculated against some of the inevitable problems that attend the transition to a computerized laboratory.
One often expects too much from computerization, leading the researcher to computerize aspects of the laboratory that are not beneficial and to collect too much unneeded data.
B. The Shotgun Disaster We caution against another pitfall, a “shotgun” approach to research. It is so easy to collect and analyze data with a computer that you may have too much irrelevant data and analyses. Even though the experimenters purchased extra memory for their microcomputer they ultimately decided that there were too many data to deal with in any meaningful, conceptual fashion. Consequently, they stripped the data down to what they should have collected. The researchers can thus plunge into a statistical analysis without having sufficiently thought about the variables and their implications. C. Don’t Lose Track Of Your Raw Data The most serious problems in the laboratory research is that the researcher may lose close contact with the raw data. As we saw, computers usually provide much information that you don’t want and may overload you. Also, you may get into trouble by misapplying a packaged program. Perhaps the analysis-of-variants program that you enter uses one error term where as your application requires a different error term.
D. The Law Of The Hammer Revisited We call that one runs to danger of conducting certain research merely because appropriate instrumentation is available. Etzioni (1975) pointed out the danger that the computer can set the direction of research, preempting the need for reflection and thought
Faculties and students need to recognize this danger because studies and analyses are increasingly conducted only because the computer makes them so easy.
Ethical principles in the conduct of psychological research I. Research with human participants A. Background Ethical principle B. General ethical principle C. The participant in the psychology at minimal risk D. The researches ethical evaluation E. Responsibility F. Informed consent from participants G. Deception may be necessary H. Debriefing I. Freedom from coercion J. Protection of participants Ethical principles for animal research Assessment of our ethical principles
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Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Psychological Research
I.
Research with human participants A. Background Ethical violations Though ethical violations are small compared to scientific researches conducted each year, it is of important that scientist and students learn to adhere to standard practices that avoid scientific integrity transgressions reported in the APA Monitor, December 1991, p. 11: o Data fabrication o Data falsification (“cooking” or altering data) o Plagiarism o Unethical treatment of animal or human subjects o Undisclosed conflicts of interest o Violations of privileged material o Irresponsible authorship credit (honorary authorship or exclusion of major contributor) o Failure to retain primary data o Inadequate supervision of research projects o Sloppy recording of data o Data dredging o Undisclosed repetition of unsatisfactory experiment o Selective reporting of findings o Failure to publish o Unwillingness to share data and research materials o Inappropriate statistical test and procedures o Insufficient and misleading reporting o Redundant publication o Fragmentary publication (“salami science”) o Inappropriate citation o Intentional submission of “sloppy manuscript”
Resulting to these incidents, in 1973, the American Psychological Association published ethical guidelines for psychologists. In March 1990, we now have a relatively stable and widely accepted set of principles as published in the American Psychologist. The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992) was updated in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (1994)
B. General ethical principle The psychologist should decide whether his or her research is potentially valuable for psychological science and human welfare. If so, he or she must maintain respect and dignity and welfare of the participants while conducting the research
C. The participant in the psychology at minimal risk Subjects should be at minimal risk according to recognized standards. If there is a possibility of serious risk for the participant, the possible outcome of the research should be of considerable value before proceeding. A number of subprinciples have been specified by the American Psychological Association as guideline to implement our general ethical principle for conducting research. D. The researcher’s ethical evaluation The researcher carefully assesses the ethical acceptability of the research. He or she must seek professional advice upon finding a question in the research.
E. Responsibility It is the investagator who is responsible for all aspect of the research, including the ethical treatment of participants by all who are collaborating in the project.
F. Informed consent from participants Informed consent means that the participants agrees to serve in the study.
It is a good idea for the investigator in all research to establish a clear and fair agreement with research participants prior to their participation. Many researchers use a standard form, signed by the participants, that indicates that they understand all aspects of the research and are willing to participate.
G. Deception may be necessary If the researcher believes that deception is justified by the prospective value of the research, and if alternative procedures are not available, then the participant must be provided with a thorough explanation as soon as possible, mostly done in the debriefing stage, as the participant is dismissed.
H. Debriefing Once the data from the participant are collected, the nature of the research is carefully explained and attempts to remove any misconception made. It is a good practice to review the data with the participants who are students and to use the debriefing session as a learning experience so that the student participant can become more sophisticated about the research. The things the participants tell the researcher can often make idiosyncratic results understandable, which may provide good leads for new hypothesis.
I. Freedom from coercion Participant is free to decline to participate in or to withdraw from the research at any time. Rosenthal points out that some individuals are not in a position to give truly informed consent; such may be psychiatrically impaired adults, prisoners and so on.
J. Protection of participants Participant should be informed if there are any risk at all, be they physical or mental discomfort, harm or danger.
The researcher should realize that participation in any research may produce at least some degree of stress. Thus, the participant should be carefully assured of his or her own safety.
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Ethical principles for animal research The investigator should ensure the welfare of animals and should treat them humanely. The first thing the researcher should do in planning to use animals is to study the Ethical Principle of Psychologist. Second, they should become familiar with federal, state, provincial, and local laws and regulations, including especially the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (1985) Finally, they should study their own university and college regulations. If the animal is likely to be subjected to distress or pain, the experimental procedures specified in the guidelines of the American Psychological Association should be carefully followed, especially for the surgical procedures. The supervisor of the research project should closely monitor all aspects of the study, including health, comfort, and humane treatment of the animals. A veterinarian should be available for consultation and should inspect the facilities at least twice a year. All these procedures should be reviewed by a local institutional care and use committee. Euthanasia may be the only alternative concerning the disposition of animals when they are no longer required. Euthanasia should be done in the most humane way, including under anesthesia.
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Assessment of our ethical principles Ethical violations during the conduct of psychological research have , been extremely rare, occurring more frequently in clinical practice and in other lines of professional endeavor.
Following the 1973 set of principles, excessively restrictive procedures were promulgated so that even minimal-risk research sometimes became difficult to conduct.
Periodically in history there have emerged national movementto attempt to stymie laboratory research with animals. Propaganda appealing to emotions has been widespread, and organized raids on respectable scientific laboratories have been conducted. These raiders obviously do not understand the great benefit for the society of scientific research.
Scientist have conducted numerous symposia to study some of the cases that pose difficult ethical dilemma. Sensitive areas are toxicity testing, chronic pain research, use of long-term restraint devices, and the use of conscious paralyzed animals.
The topic of ethics for research, like any consideration of ethical principles, is exceedingly and the subject of considerable scholarly and practical controversy. As science advances, extremely complicated new ethical issues arise.