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Angeli 1 Elizabeth L. Angeli Professor Patricia Sullivan English 624 12 February 2012
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Toward a Recovery of Nineteenth Century Farming Handbooks While researching texts written about nineteenth century farming, I found a few re of ninete authors who published books about the literature nineteenth century farming, particularly agricultural journals, newspapers, papers, pamphlets, and b brochures. These authors
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often placed the farming literature they were studying into an histori historical context by discussing the important events nts in agriculture of the y yea year ear ea r in whi which hich hi ch the he liter literature was , for example). However, r, whi hile hi le t the hese se a aut uthors discuss journals, ut published (see Demaree, while these authors mphlets, and bro roch ro chur ch ures ur es, es , I could d no not t find nd m muc uch discussion about another uc newspapers, pamphlets, brochures, much urce ur ce o of f fa farm rmin rm ing kn in know owle ow ledge: far le armi ar ming mi ng h han andboo an ooks. My goal in this paper is to oo important source farming knowledge: farming handbooks. icultu ic tural tu l li litera ratu ra ture tu re discussion by connecting three bring this source into the agric agricultural literature ks from the ni nine nete ne teen te enth en th century w agricultural handbooks nineteenth with nineteenth century agricultural history. e organi To achieve this goal, I have organized my paper into four main sections, two of
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which have sub-sections. In the first section, I provide an account of three important events in nineteenth century agricultural history: population and technological changes, the distribution of scientific new knowledge, and farming’s influence on education. In the second section, I discuss three nineteenth century farming handbooks in connection with the important events described in the first section. I end my paper with a third section that offers research questions that could be answered in future versions of this paper and
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Angeli 2 conclude with a fourth section that discusses the importance of expanding this particular project. I also include an appendix before the Works Cited that contains images of the three handbooks I examined. Before I can begin the examination of the three handbooks, however, I need to provide an historical context in which the books were written, and it is to this that I now turn.
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HISTORICAL CONTEXT
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The nineteenth century saw many changes to daily America American life with an increase in population, improved methods of transportation, sportation, developments in technology, and the all ll a aspects o of f nineteenth century rise in the importance of science. These events impacted a American life, most significantly icantly those involved in sl slav slavery aver av ery er y an and the e Ci Civil War, but a large part of American life was affected, a pa part rt t tha that hat is q ha quite te o oft often ften ft en t tak taken aken for grant ak granted: the life of the American farmer. armer. Population and nd Technological al Cha Changes. hang ha nges. One ng One of the biggest st c changes, as seen in
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nineteenth century America’s census reports, dramatic increase in population. The merica’s cen ensus repo en port po rts, is the dram rt 1820 census reported that over 10 million people were living in America; of those 10 million, over 2 million were engaged aged in agri agriculture. Ten years prior to that, the 1810 census reported over 7 million people were living in the states; there was no category for people engaged in agriculture. In this ten-year time span, then, agriculture experienced significant improvements and changes that enhanced its importance in American life. One of these improvements was the developments of canals and steamboats, which allowed farmers to “sell what has previously been unsalable [sic]” and resulted in a “substantial increase in [a farmer’s] ability to earn income” (Danhof 5). This
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Angeli 3 improvement allowed the relations between the rural and urban populations to strengthen, resulting in an increase in trade. The urban population (defined as having over 2,500 inhabitants) in the northern states increased rapidly after 1820.1 This increase accompanied the decrease in rural populations, as farmers who “preferred trade, transportation, or ‘tinkering’” to the tasks of tending to crops and animals found great opportunities in the city (Danhof 7). Trade and transportation thus began to influence
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farming life significantly. Before 1820, the rural community ommu accounted for eighty percent of consumption of farmers’ goods (Hurt 127). 27). With the impr improvements in transportation, cts were sold for commerci twenty-five percent of farmers’ products commercial gain, and by 1825, her than a way of life” (1 (128 28). 28 ). T This bu busi sine si ne required farming “became a business rather (128). business st far arme ar mers me rs to gi give “less a farmers to specialize their production and caused most farmers attention to rplus commodit itie it ies ie s li like ke w wheat at, to at toba bacc ba cco, p cc pork, or beef” (128). The the production of surplus commodities wheat, tobacco, ecialization e enc ncou nc oura ou rage ra ged ge d so some me farmers to tu turn to techno increase in specialization encouraged technology to increase their nd capitalize on com ommerc om rcia rc ial ia l ma mark rket rk ets (172 et 72). 72 ). production and commercial markets (172). Develo De lopm lo pmen pm ent en t of Technolog Development Technologies d around 1820 was de The technology farmers used developed from three main sources. First, developments that took place in Europe wi with the development of industry continued to impact farming practices worldwide. Second, farmers looked to the techniques developed by coastal Indian tribes in America for expertise, since these techniques were created for
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the crops and climates unique to the Americas. Finally, domestic modifications made from the first two sources’ technologies were engineered by American farmers themselves to meet the farmers’ specific needs. Through time, technology improved, and while some farmers clung to their time-tested technologies, others were eager to find
Angeli 4 alternatives to these technologies. These farmers often turned to current developments in Great Britain and received word of their technological improvements through firsthand
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knowledge by talking with immigrants and travelers. Spread of Technologies In addition to gaining information from overseas, farmers also began planning and conducting experiments, and although they lacked a truly scientific approach, these farmers engaged in experiments to obtain results ults and learn from the results.2 Agricultural ourage . . . experimentati organizations were then formed to “encourage experimentation, hear reports, observe ments” (Danhof 53). Thu hus, hu s, new kno results, and exchange critical comments” Thus, knowledge was er to farmer, immigrant to far arme ar mer, a me and nd t tra raveler to farmer, ra transmitted orally from farmer farmer, traveler this new ew sci cien ci enti en tific knowledg ti which could result in the miscommunication of th scientific knowledge. Therefore,
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ere made for or k kno nowl no wled wl edge ed ge to be tra rans ra nsmi ns mitt mi tted tt ed and recorde developments were knowledge transmitted recorded in a more redi re dibl di ble bl e way: by pr prin int. in t. permanent, credible print. The Distribution of New Knowle Knowledge. ledg le dge dg e. Be Befo Before fore fo re 1820 and pr prior to the new knowledge mers who wanted print in farmers were creating, farmers information about agriculture had their choice of agricultural almanacs and even loc local newspapers to receive information ri (Danhof 54). After 1820, however, agricultural writing took more forms than almanacs and newspapers. From 1820 to 1870, agricultural periodicals were responsible for spreading new knowledge among farmers. In his published dissertation The American Agricultural Press 1819-1860, Albert Lowther Demaree presents a “description of the general content of [agricultural journals]” (xi). These journals began in 1819 and were written for farmers, with topics devoted to “farming, stock raising, [and] horticulture”
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Angeli 5 (12). The suggested “birthdate” of American agricultural journalism is April 2, 1819 when John S. Skinner published his periodical American Farmer in Baltimore. Demaree writes that Skinner’s periodical was the “first continuous, successful agricultural periodical in the United States” and “served as a model for hundreds of journals that succeeded it” (19). In the midst of the development of the journal, farmers began writing handbooks. Not much has been written on the handbooks’ history, aside from the fact that C.M. Saxton & Co. in New York was the major handbo handbook publisher. Despite the lack of
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information about handbooks, and as can be seen in my disc discussion below, these handbooks played a significant role in distributing knowledge am among farmers and in w discuss. educating young farmers, as I now Farming’s Influence on Education. One result of f th the e ne newly y ci circ circulating rcul rc ulating print in ul information ient ie ntif nt ific i if inf nformati nf tion ti on u upo pon po n wh whic ich could be based a rational ic was the “need for acquiring scie scientific information upon which ould ou ld “ “be be s sub ubst ub stit st itut it uted ut ed for t the he c cur urre ur rent div re iverse, empi iv technology” that cou could substituted current diverse, empirical practices” k Nature Na re and nd R Rea easo ea son Harmoniz so iz in the Practice of (Danhof 69). In his 1825 book Reason Harmonized ain begins h his is first c cha hapter by stat ha Husbandry, John Lorain chapter stating that “[v]ery erroneous theories lting in faulty farmin have been propagated” resulting farming methods (1). His words here create a ok, as he of framework for the rest of his book, offers his readers narratives of his own trials and errors and even dismisses foreign, time-tested techniques farmers had held on to: “The knowledge we have of that very ancient and numerous nation the Chinese, as well as the very located habits and costumes of this very singular people, is in itself insufficient to teach us . . .” (75). His book captures the call and need for scientific experiments to develop new knowledge meant to be used in/on/with American soil, which reflects some farmers’ thinking of the day.
Angeli 6 By the 1860s, the need for this knowledge was strong enough to affect education. John Nicholson anticipated this effect in 1820 in the “Experiments” section of his book The Farmer’s Assistant; Being a Digest of All That Relates to Agriculture and the
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Conducting of Rural Affairs; Alphabetically Arranged and Adapted for the United States: Perhaps it would be well, if some institution were devised, and supported at the expense of the State, which would be so organized as would tend most effectually to produce a due degr degree of emulation among Farmers, by
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rewards and honorary distinctions ctions conferred by those who, by their successful experimental l efforts and improvemen improvements, should render themselves duly entitled to them.3 (92) Part of Nicholson’s hope was realized in 1837 when M Michi Michigan higa hi gan esta ga established tabl ta blished th bl their state university, specifying “agriculture integral curriculum” ng that “agricult ltur lt ure ur e wa was s to be e an i int nteg nt egral pa eg part of the cu (Danhof 71). Not ot much wa was s ac acco accomplished, comp co mpli mp lish li shed sh ed, however, m ed muc much uch to the dis uc dissatisfaction of farmers, and in n 1855, the state au auth authorized thor th oriz or ized iz ed a n new ew college ge t to o be “ “devoted to agriculture and to be independent of the univer university” ersi er sity si ty” ty ” (D (Dan (Danhof anho an hof ho f 71). The gov government became more involved in the creation of agricultural when President Lincoln passed the tural universities in 1862 w Morrill Land Grant College Act, ct which begins with this phrase: “AN ACT Donating Public Lands to the several States and nd T Territories which may provide Colleges for the Benefit of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts [sic].” The first agricultural colleges formed
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under the act suffered from a lack of trained teachers and “an insufficient base of knowledge,” and critics claimed that the new colleges did not meet the needs of farmers (Hurt 193).
Angeli 7 Congress addressed these problems with the then newly formed United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA and Morrill Act worked together to form “. . . State experiment stations and extension services . . . [that] added [to] . . . localized research and education . . .” (Baker et al. 415). The USDA added to the scientific and educational areas of the agricultural field in other ways by including research as one of the organization’s “foundation stone” (367) and by including these seven objectives: (1) [C]ollecting, arranging, and nd publishing st statistical and other useful agricultural information; on; (2) introducing valuable p plants and animals; (3) ies of farmers regarding a agr gric gr iculture; ic ; (4 (4) ) testing answering inquiries agriculture; ing in g ch chem emic em ical a ic ana nalyses of soils, grains, na agricultural implements; (5) conductin conducting chemical analyses bles bl es, an es and d manu nure nu res; re s; ( (6) 6) est stablishing a pr st fruits, plants, vegetabl vegetables, manures; establishing professorship of nd e ent ntom nt omol om olog ol ogy; og y; a and nd (7) 7) estab ablish ab shing an agricu sh botany and entomology; establishing agricultural library and er e et al. . 14 14) ) museum. (Baker ere a respon onse on se t to o fa farm rmer rm ers’ er s’ needs at th These objectives were response farmers’ the time, mainly to the need for tribution of new farming k experiments, printed distribution knowledge, and education. Isaac er of Agricultur Newton, the first Commissioner Agriculture, ensured these objectives would be duca realized by stressing research and education with the ultimate goal of helping farmers improve their operations (Hurt 190). Before the USDA assisted in the circulation of knowledge, however, farmers wrote about their own farming methods. This brings me to my next section in which I examine three handbooks written by farmers and connect my observations of the texts
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Angeli 8 with the discussion of agricultural history I have presented above. Note: Sections of this paper have been deleted to shorten the length of the paper
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CONCLUSION
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From examining Drown’s, Allen’s, and Crozier and Henderson’s handbooks in light of nineteenth century agricultural history, I can say that science and education seem to have had a strong influence on how and why these handbooks were written. The authors’ ethos is created by how they align themselves as farmers mers with sc science and education either by dless of their stance, the authors needed to create supporting or by criticizing them. Regardless hey did this by including g tables of information, an ethos to gain an audience, and they ucatio uc iona io nal re na refo form fo rm, and pi rm illustrations of animals and buildings, reasons for educ educational reform, pieces of ers in their texts. It would b be inte tere te rest re stin st ing in g to see if other farming advice to young farmers interesting tury tu ry a als lso ls o co convey a sim imil im ilar il ar e eth thos concernin th handbooks of the same centu century also similar ethos concerning science and agr gric gr icul ic ultu ul ture. Recove tu veri ve ring m ri mor ore or e ha hand ndbo nd book bo oks ok s in t thi his wa hi education in a agriculture. Recovering more handbooks this way could lead to a better, derstanding of f far armi ar ming mi ng e edu duca du cation, scienc ca more complete understanding farming education, science’s role in farming and nder nd erst er standing of the rhetoric of farming handbooks in the st education, and perhaps even an und understanding nineteenth century.
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Angeli 9 Notes
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1. Danhof includes “Delaware, Maryland, all states north of the Potomac and
Endnotes begin on a new page after the paper but before the Works Cited. Doublespace all entries, and indent each entry 0.5” from the margin.
Ohio rivers, Missouri, and states to its north” when referring to the northern states (11). 2. For the purposes of this paper, “science” is defined as it was in nineteenth century agriculture: conducting experiments and engaging in research. 3. Please note that any direct quotes from the nineteenth century texts are written in their original form, which may contain grammar r mi mistakes according to twenty-first century grammar rules.
Begin an appendix on a new page with the word “Appendix” in the top center of the page. If you have more than one appendix, label them “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” etc.
Angeli 10 Appendix Farming Handbooks Examined
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Figure 1. Cover image of R.L. Allen’s The e American Farm Bo Book; or Compend of American Agriculture; Being a Practical Manures, Draining, tical Treatise on Soils, Manures Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, ots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Tobac acco ac co, Su co Suga Sugar gar ga r Ca Cane Cane, ne, Rice, and Every ne Staple Product of the United Methods Planting, Cultivating, and ited States with the Best Me Meth thod th ods of P od Pla lant la nting, Cultiva nt Preparation for Market.
Label tables and figures and use captions as you normally would in the text. Provide any necessary citations on your Works Cited page.
Figure 2. Cover image from William Crozier and Peter Henderson’s How the Farm Pays. The Experience of Forty Years of Successful Farming and Gardening.
Angeli 11
Figure 3. Cover image from William Drown and Solomon Drown’s Compendium of Agriculture or the Farmer’s Guide, in the Most Essent Essential Parts of Husbandry and Gardening; Compiled from the Best American rican and Europe European Publications, and the
Unwritten Opinions of Experienced Cultivators.
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The Works Cited page is a list of all the sources cited in your paper.
Angeli 12 Works Cited
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Allen, R.L. The American Farm Book; or Compend of American Agriculture; Being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and Every Staple Product of the United States with the Best Methods of Planting, Cultivating, and Preparation for Market. New York: Saxton, 1849. Print. Baker, Gladys L., Wayne D. Rasmussen, Vivian Wiser Wiser, and Jane M. Porter. Century of Service: The First 100 Years of the United States De Department of Agriculture. [Federal Government], 1996. Print.
MLA no longer requires URLs in the Works Cited. Instead, you must write “Web” before the date of access in the entry. This serves as the entry’s publication marker.
ern er n Un United S Sta tate ta te 1820-1870. Danhof, Clarence H. Change in Agriculture: The Norther Northern States, d UP, 1969. Print. Cambridge: Harvard wther. The American Amer eric er ican ic an A Agr gricul gr ultura ul ral Pr ra Press s 1819-1860. New Ne York: Demaree, Albert Lowther. Agricultural ia UP, 194 941. 94 1. P Pri rint ri nt. nt . Columbia 1941. Print. am and Solomon on D Dro rown ro wn. Co wn Comp mpen mp endi en dium of di f Ag Agri ricu ri Drown, William Drown. Compendium Agriculture or the Farmer’s e Most Essen ential en al P Par arts ar ts o of f Hu Husbandry and Gardening; Compiled from Guide, in the Essential Parts the Best American and European Publicati Publications, and the Unwritten Opinions of Experienced Cultivators. Providence Providence: Field, 1824. Print. si of Virginia Library. 2007. Web. 6 Dec. 2008. “Historical Census Browser.” University Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History. Ames: Iowa State UP, 1994. Print. Lorain, John. Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry. Philadelphia: Carey, 1825. Print. Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862. Prairie View A&M. 2003. Web. 6 Dec. 2008.
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Angeli 13 Nicholson, John. The Farmer’s Assistant; Being a Digest of All That Relates to Agriculture and the Conducting of Rural Affairs; Alphabetically Arranged and Adapted for the United States. [Philadelphia]: Warner, 1820. Print.