Transcript
Sustainable Design for Health & Productivity
South Africa Green Building Council November 2008 Vivian Loftness, FAIA
Carnegie Mellon University Professor of Architecture Quality Assurance Team, World Business Council for Sustainable Development USGBC Board Member, LEED AP AIA Communities by Design Board Member
Center for Building Performance & Diagnostics
With the Advanced Building Systems Integration Consortium
Potential Cost-Benefits for Building Quality Differences - BIDS™
200 180 160 140
$ per square foot
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Salary Rent/Mortgage Energy
Potential Cost-Benefits for Building Quality Differences - BIDS™
45000
$5,300 Turnover
3 4
40000 35000
$765 (1.7%) Abseenteism
$ per person per year
30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 Salary Benefits
$18,500 1 Benefits
12.5% Productivity2
$45,000 1 Salary
Worktime Loss
$244 Lower Respiratory5 $101 Asthma6 $95 Allergies6 $92 Back Pain7 $73 Headaches6 $68 Cold8 $17 MSD9 $19 Throat Irritation6 $18 Eye Irritation6 $18 Sinus Conditions6
1
$5,000 Health
Potential Benefits of Quality Buildings
$1,000 Connectivity
(Forrester Group)
$10,000 Technology $3,200 10 Rent/Mortgage
$450 11 Energy
$200 12 Churn
Technology
Rent/Mortgage
Energy
Churn
CBPD/ABSIC BIDS
TM
The True Cost of Least-cost Buildings
First Cost Operations/ Energy Individual Productivity Organizational Productivity Health Attraction/ Retention Organizational Churn Technological Churn Tax/ Litigation/ Insurance Salvage/ Waste
The True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Annual Energy
The True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Peak Energy
increasing peak power demands in buildings are challenging electricity reliability; purchases in inefficient stand-by power are siphoning off energy efficiency investments.
The True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Vacancy
True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Churn Rate and Cost
Churn Rate
Facility Use Headquarters Other offices Multi-use Research Factory/Plant Education/Training Call Center Churn Rate 45% 47% 32% 34% 25% 11% 47%
Churn Cost
Average
41%
International Facility Management Association (IFMA) (2002) Research Report 23: Project Management Benchmarks
Average Churn Cost is $200 per employee annually based on a 41% average churn rate at $479 per move
True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Absenteeism
Baseline Employee Salary and Benefits
Annual absenteeism rate Private sector employees Public sector employees
Equivalent hours lost work 35 42
Annual cost to employer $ 765
1.7% 2.2%
$ 1,100
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor (2003)
True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Direct Costs of Building-related Illnesses and Health Conditions
Treatment for illnesses and health conditions that are influenced by the indoor environment ,costs employers at least $750 per employee annually, accounting for approximately 14% of all annual health insurance expenditures.
True Cost of Least-cost Buildings: Health-related Productivity Costs
Productivity loss may result from absence from work, but is more often due to reduced effectiveness on the job. In total, productivity losses from building-related health problems are equivalent to more than 10 days per employee per year.
Presenteeism - at work but out of it
Paul Hemp HBR Oct. 2004
True Cost of Least-cost Buildings:
Attraction/Retention Cost and Turnover Rate
Average Attraction/Retention Cost is $5,300 per employee annually based on $25,875 turnover cost at a rate of 20%.
Turnover Rate
Average Turnover Rate Private professional Government 20.3% 6.8%
Turnover Cost
Cost of Turnover for one position Termination Replacement Productivity Total $ 1000 $ 9,000 $15,875 (3 months baseline salary and benefits) $25,875
Fitz-Enz, Jac (2000) The ROI of Human Capital: Measuring the Economic Value of Employee Performance. New York: American Management Association, 2000. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor (2003) Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey (JOLTS)
Measuring Productivity? Dependent on Tasks and Time Spent
What building attributes matter the most?
Air Light Thermal Control Privacy and Interaction Ergonomics Material Quality Access to Nature Land use and mobility
Wine Creek Residence, Siegel & Strain, CA
Healthy, Sustainable Air Maximize natural ventilation with mixed-mode HVAC Separate ventilation air from thermal conditioning Provide task air for individual control Pollution source control Improve the quality and quantity of outside air
The Health Potential of Buildings and Communities Sick Building Costs Healthy Building Gains
45 40 35 30 25 %D 20 15 10 5 0
Respiratory Illness Influenza Absence Resp. Illness Reduction of 9% to 20% from all ten studies, excluding outlier
Higher Larger No Vent. Shared Quarters Rate In Office in Antarctic Barracks Station
1
Natural Vs. Fan Vent. in Classroom
Higher Higher Higher Vent. Rate Vent. Vent. Rate More space Rate in in in Nursing Jail Office Home
(Fisk/LBNL 2000)
Increased outdoor ventilation rates and natural ventilation significantly reduces respiratory illness, flus and absenteeism by 9-20%
Access to operable windows reduces energy use, absenteeism, SBS symptoms, and improves productivity and test scores
Colonia Insurance
Even high rise offices can be naturally ventilated
Sustainable Enclosures
Daylighting dominant Natural ventilation dominant Solar heat and glare control Load balancing – façade as circulatory system Thermal mass/ flywheel effect Solar heating, cooling, power Sustainable materials Modular, designed for change Designed for disassembly 100% recycled content
Healthy, Sustainable Light Maximize the use of Daylighting without glare Select the highest quality lighting quality fixtures Separate task and ambient light Design Plug-and-play lighting and dynamic lighting zones
Shading alone passively reduces overheating, glare, and energy costs; and can be combined with light redirection for effective daylighting
Sustainable, High Performance Lighting includes improvements in fixtures, ballasts, lamps, lenses; the separation of task and ambient lighting; with user responsive, innovative controls
Task light: Split task-ambient lighting task light with articulated arm and relocatable on the desktop
Controls: Individual control, continuous dimming to 0%, daylight dimming, occupancy sensors
Katzev 1992 | DeMarco and Lister 1987 Lighting Quality = Individual Productivity In a 1992 controlled experiment, Katzev identifies a 26% improvement in reading comprehension in offices with direct/indirect luminaires, as compared to performance in offices with standard recessed troffers.
Katzev, R. (1992) The Impact of Energy-Efficient Office Lighting Strategies on Employee Satisfaction and Productivity. Environment and Behavior, 24:6, pp. 759-778. DeMarco, T. and Lister, T. (1987) Peopleware: Productive Projects and Teams. Dorset House Publishing Co.
Lighting control = Individual productivity + Health
Cakir and Cakir 1998 In a 1998 multiple building study in Germany, Çakir and Çakir identify a 19% reduction in headaches for workers with separate task and ambient lighting, as compared to workers with ceiling-only combined task and ambient lighting.
First cost increase: $314 /employee Annual health savings: $14 /employee Annual productivity savings: $87 /employee
ROI:
32%
Lighting System Quality Reduces Energy Use
13 international case studies demonstrate that improved lighting design reduces annual energy loads by 27-88%.
6 studies demonstrate 27-87% improved lighting design decisions 4 studies identify 40-88% energy savings through innovative control systems 3 studies illustrate 34-73% energy savings from higher quality fixtures
Lighting System Quality Increases Individual Productivity
12 international case studies demonstrate that improved lighting design increases individual productivity between 0.7-23%.
4 studies demonstrate 3-23% productivity gains with the introduction of indirect-direct lighting systems 4 studies demonstrate 3-13.2% productivity gains with the higher quality fixtures 4 studies demonstrate 0.7-2% productivity gains with higher daylighting levels & daylight simulating fixtures
Healthy, Sustainable Thermal Control Separate ventilation air from thermal conditioning Install integrated, prototyped, robust HVAC systems Provide individual thermal controls Design for dynamic thermal zone sizes Design for building load balancing and radiant comfort
Sustainable design depends on the design of flexible, plug and play systems.
Flexible Grid - Flexible Density - Flexible Closure Building Infrastructure Systems
are a constellation of building subsystems that permit each individual to set the location and density of HVAC, lighting, telecommunications, and furniture, and the level of workspace enclosure (ABSIC/CMU).
The best HVAC systems provide individual control, access for maintenance, and separate ventilation and thermal conditioning.
Floor-based ventilation + Increased outside air = Health
Smedje & Norback 2000 (School)
In a 2000 multiple building study of 39 schools in Sweden, Smedje and Norback identify a 69% reduction in the 2-year incidence of asthma among students in schools that received a new displacement ventilation system with increased fresh air supply rates, as compared to students in schools that did not receive a new ventilation system.
First cost increase: Annual energy cost increase: Annual health savings: ROI: $38 / student $2 / student $36 / student 89%
Two-year incidence of symptoms in students attending schools with and without new ventilation systems
14 New ventilation system 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Pollen/pet allergy Asthma ever Current asthma Any asthma symptoms More asthma symptoms in1995 than 1993 No new ventilation system
Reference: Smedje, G and Norback, D. (2000) New ventilation systems at select schools in Sweden—Effects on Asthma and Exposure. Archives of Environmental Health, 35(1), pp. 18-25.
Radiant Ceiling Panel System = Productivity + Energy Savings
Imanari et al 1999 (Office)
In a 1999 controlled field experiment and simulation study, Takehito et al identify a 23.8% improvement in measured work efficiency among women subjects and a simulated 10% HVAC energy savings in the Tokyo climate from providing cooling with a radiant ceiling panel system, as compared to a conventional air handling unit.
First cost increase: Annual health savings: Annual productivity savings: ROI: $18 / employee $18 / employee $485 / employee 2,792%
Results of work efficiency test with cooled ceiling and AHU
Chart: Imanari et al 1999
Reference: Imanari,T., T. Omori and K.Bogaki (1999) Thermal comfort and energy consumption of the radiant ceiling panel system. Comparison with the conventional all-air system. Energy and Buildings. Vol. 30, pp167-175.
Temperature Control Increases Productivity and Reduces Energy Use
8 international case studies demonstrate that providing individual temperature control for each worker increases individual productivity by 0.2-3%.
Engineer load balancing and radiant temperatures
Advanced enclosure controls for night cooling of thermal mass without risk of condensation
Precedent Matters
Time lag, stack ventilation, evaporative cooling, and PV electricity = zero energy
Tate, Snyder, Kimsey Architects LV Animal Shelter COTE Top 10
Sustainable design depends on the use of materials and assemblies that ensure healthy environments
Material Selection is critical in relation to outgassing, toxicity in fires, radon, cancer causing fibers, and mold, impacting respiratory and digestive systems, eyes and skin.
Mcdonough/Braungart
Pollutant source control = Health + Individual productivity (hospital)
Garrett et al 1996 In a 1996 multiple building study of 80 homes Victoria, Australia, Garrett et al identify a 60% reduction in the prevalence of asthma and a 63% reduction in the prevalence of allergies among children whose homes contain formaldehyde-free composite wood products, as compared to those exposed to formaldehyde from furnishings and products in their home.
First cost increase: Annual health savings: ROI: $615 / household $1,108 / household 180%
Percent of children with asthma in relation to the maximum level of formaldehyde measured in their home
50%
43%
40% Percent of children with asthma
39%
30%
20%
16%
10%
0% <16 ppb 16 - 40 ppb >40 ppb Max. formaldehyde measured in home
Garrett, MH, MA Hooper, and BM Hooper (1996) Low levels of formaldehyde in residential homes and a correlation with asthma and allergy in children. In Proceedings of Indoor Air 96, vol 1.
Carnegie Mellon University Center for Building Performance ABSIC BIDS™
Healthy, Sustainable design depends on Access to the Natural Environment Views Daylight Circadian Rhythm Natural Ventilation Connection to Outdoors Biophilia
World Birding Center, Mission, Texas
Lake Flato Achitects AIA Top 10
PERCENTAGE (ALMOST DAILY/SEVERAL TIMES A WEEK) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5
EYE STRAIN
LOWERBACK PAIN GENERAL TIREDNESS BLURRING VISION
Comparison between Window Proximity and Health Complaints (Forrestal and Germantown)
NEAR EXTERIOR WINDOW SORE NECK IRRITABILITY HEADACHES MIDDLE OF THE OFFICE SPACE SORE SHOULDERS SLEEPLESSENSS EYE IRRITATION IGENERAL FEELING OF STRESS COUGHS NEAR INTERIOR CORE OF BUILDING NOSE AND THROAT IRRITATIONS
Comparative studies of daylit offices and classrooms demonstrate 10-25% performance gains, 5-10% reductions in SBS symptoms, and over 30% energy savings
Ove Arup offices
Seated Views = Individual productivity SMUD Call Center /Heschong Mahone Group, lnc. 2003 In a 2003 building case study of the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) Call Center, Heschong et al identify a 6% to 7% faster Average Handling Time (AHT) for employees with seated access to views through larger windows with vegetation content from their cubicles, as compared to employees with no view of the outdoors.
First cost increase: Annual productivity savings: $1,000 /employee $2,990 /employee
ROI:
299%
Sunlight = Health
Montefiore Hospital / Walch et al 2005
In a 2005 study of pain medication use among 89 patients undergoing elective cervical and lumbar spinal surgery at Montefiore Hospital in Pittsburgh, PA, Walch et al identify a 22% reduction in analgesic medication use among patients in bright rooms who were exposed to more natural sunlight after surgery, as compared to patients located in dim rooms after surgery.
First cost increase: Annual health savings: ROI: $1,000 / bed $28 / bed 3%
Average medication use per day by room type
8 Bright room Mean oral morphine consumption (mg/hr) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Surgery Post-op Post-op Post-op Post-op Post-op day day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 Dim room
CMU Architecture Graduate: Walch, Jeffrey et al (2005) The effect of sunlight on postoperative analgesic medication use: a prospective study of patients undergoing spinal surgery. Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, pp. 156-163.
Average U.S. office building
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Average U.S. office building
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Average U.S. office building Ventilation in
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Average U.S. office building
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Healthy, Sustainable design depends on changing approaches to Land Use, Community Planning, and Regional Infrastructures
Design for live-work-walk - mixed use communities Design for mobility- mixed mode transportation The beauty of regenerative landscapes
www.pedbikeimages.org / Dan Burden
Which future? Vehicle miles have risen by 80% from 1980 to 2000, while population rose only 21.5%, creating both energy and health consequences.
Transportation Use
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
e G er m an y st ria ar k he rla nd s N or w ay * Sw ed en Sw itz er la nd * a Fr an c It al y* ad K* SA U M en m Ca n U n* ea **
Percentage (%)
Au
D
Car
Public Transport
N
et
Bicycling
Walking
Walking plus Bicycling
The CDC has identified that obesity is lowest in countries and neighborhoods with significant walking and biking.
During the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, city officials reduced vehicle traffic by 22.5% and asthmas related emergencies decreased 41.6%
Traffic reduction Peak ozone levels Asthma emergencies -50
-43 -29
-25
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
Source: Friedman et al., 2001 (CDC/JAMA)
2004 Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis
Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org)
Typical Strip Commercial Development Pearl City, Hawaii
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for strip commercial development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for strip commercial development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for strip commercial development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for strip commercial development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for a “big box” development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for a “big box” development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for a “big box” development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for a “big box” development
Courtesy Benjamin Lee, FAIA
Design alternatives for a “big box” development
Ecological footprints
pedestrian oriented development = transportation shed, watersheds, air sheds, energy sheds material sheds, food sheds, waste sheds
Sustainable design depends on the promotion of infrastructures to neighborhood amenities.
landscape for water management, mobility and energy sources
Towers Gold landscape architects
Cool Roofs and “Cool Community” developments reduce annual cooling loads by 10% and peak cooling by 5% with carbon sequestration, storm runoff management, and a 6-8% reduction in smog.
Stata Center MIT: Nitsch Engineering SWM
Green Roof Triple Bottom Line Profit
Roof longevity Energy conservation Real estate value
Planet People
Noise abatement Occupant health, wellbeing, productivity New industry/ job creation Storm-water runoff benefits Erosion reduction Urban heat island mitigation Wildlife habitat creation Improved outdoor air quality Carbon sequestration
Green Roof Components
• Mix of vegetation • Growing medium • Layer for water storage, drainage, filtration, aeration • Root barrier • Waterproof membrane • Insulation layer
Optional: Walkways, terraces and sitting areas Curbs and railings Lighting Irrigation systems Leak detection systems
Types of Green Roofs
Extensive
Semi-intensive
Intensive
>6 inch growing medium >35 pounds / ft2 Sedums, herbs Low maintenance Lowest cost Inaccessible
>12 inch growing medium 6-12 inch growing medium 50-300 pounds / ft2 35-50 pounds / ft2 Height variation, meadow plants Gardens, canopies Maintenance varies High maintenance Moderate cost High cost Partially accessible Accessible
Ways to Install Green Roofs
Pre-vegetated mats
Pre-planted modular containers
All types Fast installation Pre-”green” as desired High flexibility for change Relatively lower cost
Built-in-place systems
All types Slow installation Up to 2 years for full coverage Low flexibility for change Relatively higher cost
Extensive type only Fast installation Immediately green Low flexibility for change Relatively lower cost
Profit: Roof longevity
Green roof shades membrane from UV and thermal stress
Median daily temperature swing of conventional dark-colored roof = 45ºC, compared to 6ºC for green roof1
Increases membrane life by 2-4X; up to 50 years2
1) Liu and Baskaran 2003 2) Kosareo and Ries 2007
Profit: Energy Conservation
• • • • Direct roof shading Evaporative cooling from the plants and growing medium Additional thermal mass in the roof Additional insulation in the roof assembly
Heat tranfer through green and conventional roofs
70
Green Roof 63.4
60 kWh per square meter 50 40
Reference Roof
44.1
32.8
33.7
30 20 10
0.9 19.3
Green roof reduced summer heat gain through the roof by 95%, and reduced winter heat loss through the roof by approximately 26%3
0 Heat Gain Heat Loss Total Heat Flow
3) Liu and Baskaran 2003
Profit or Planet? Stormwater Runoff & Erosion
Excessive runoff during rainstorms results in: • Sewage overflow to the Potomac & Anacostia Rivers and Rock Creek (CSOs) • Erosion of runoff paths and at downspout outlets
Green roofs retain more than 50% of the rainwater that falls on them.
Magnusson Klemencic 2007
Stormwater Fees & Savings
• Stormwater fee: individual building owners pay for storm water runoff that leaves their building site. • Rates per impervious area of a parcel, including the roof surface • DCWASA is planning to implement a similar fee system
Annual storm water charges per square foot of impervious site area in munipalities surrounding Washington, D.C
$0.040 0.035 $0.035 $0.030 Fee per square foot 0.025 $0.025 $0.020 $0.015 $0.010 0.005 $0.005 0.001 $0.000 Chesa- Hampton Newport Norfolk peake VA News VA VA VA Virginia Beach VA Portsmouth VA Prince Takoma MontWilliam Park gomery County MD County VA MD Average $0.02 per square foot 0.018 0.013 0.023 0.029 0.028
Given the average stormwater rate of surrounding municipalities, the Dirksen SOB green roof would avoid $11,900 in stormwater fees over a 25-year life cycle.
Planet: Urban Heat Island Mitigation
Urban heat island: can result in temperature differences of between rural and urban areas, which: up to 10 F
• Increases the use of air conditioning equipment • Increases building cooling load • Increases peak energy penalties
A green roof mitigates the heat island effect by cooling rooftop air through evapo-transpiration.
FEMP/DOE Federal Technology Alert DOE/EE-2098
Planet: Peak Load Reduction
• 0.334 kW - 0.359 kW peak load reduction per 1,000 ft2 green (cool) roof area (pre-1980 building, Washington, D.C. climate)5 • $600 per kW to bring a new power plant online to supply additional load6
Peak capacity savings due to Dirksen SOB green roofs: $5,900 - $6,900
5) Akbari et al 2005 6) Banting et al 2005
Planet: Habitat Creation
• Green roofs can attract migratory and other birds, insects, and invertebrate soil-dwelling organisms. • May function as ecological corridors through developed areas, linking larger green spaces • ‘Features’ known to attract wildlife6
Variety in height and slope of soil Sparsely and densely planted areas Freely and poorly draining areas Diverse plant population
Northern lapwing on a Swiss green roof
6) Brenneisen 2003
Planet: Outdoor Air Quality
• Rooftop plants can trap particulates and sequester gaseous pollutants with their leaves • Reduced power plant emissions due to energy savings
Air pollutant removal by green roofs in Washington DC (Casey Trees Endowment Fund 2005)
0.30 0.27 kilograms removed per 1,000 sq.ft. of green roof 0.25 0.26
Air pollution externality values (USDOE 1995)
$7,000 $6,000 $5,000 Dollars per ton $4,000 $4,000 $3,000 $2,000 $6,500
0.20
0.15
0.10 0.10
0.10
$1,500 $870 $22
0.05
0.04
$1,000 $O3 PM10 CO NOx SOx
0.00
PM10
NOx
SOx
CO
CO2
25-year life cycle emissions savings for Dirksen SOB green roof: $56,400 - $56,900
People: Noise abatement
Unlike hard surface roofs, green roofs absorb sound rather than reflect it.
• Green roof with 4-inch growing medium reduces transmission of airport noise into building by at least 5 decibels.7 • GAP Inc. headquarters green roof attenuates airplane sound to 50dB • Many airport authorities offer cash to improve building enclosures; In 2004, the average noise mitigation paid by airport authorities to qualifying households was $12,500 ($5 per square foot)9
Noise abatement value of Dirksen SOB green roof: $34,000
7) Dunnett and Kingsbury 2004 9) Landrum & Brown 2005
People: Productivity Benefits
A 2003 study by the Heschong-Mahone Group found a
6% improvement in call center average handling time for workers with the highest rated views, as compared to workers with no view at all.
Range of improvement from 0.5 percent to 1.4 percent per one point increase in view rating
In the Dirksen SOB, the productivity gain for staffers who will now have a view of a vegetated roof, is estimated at 2.9% and valued at $65,000 per year.
People: New Industry & Job Creation
Emerging US industry? Germany’s green roof industry growing 15-20% a year 10% of all flat roofed buildings in Germany now green over 500 million square feet of roof spurred by taxes and incentives: fees for storm water management subsidies to avoid infrastructure replacement indirect subsidies to substitute green roofs as open space
Local job development? design/engineering manufacturing installation
Green Roof Triple Bottom Line Profit
Roof longevity Energy conservation Real estate value
Planet People
Noise abatement Occupant health, wellbeing, productivity New industry/ job creation Storm-water runoff benefits Erosion reduction Urban heat island mitigation Wildlife habitat creation Improved outdoor air quality Carbon sequestration
The Intelligent Workplace… and next Carnegie Mellon University A Living Laboratory for Building Environmental Research
Carnegie Mellon’s Building as Power Plant: merging ascending and cascading energy systems
On-site generation and energy cascades can shift generation efficiencies from 30% to 70%. Add renewable sources and buildings can generate more power than they use.
1. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Energy and Environment Directorate, August 2003.
In 2003, the US wasted 60% more energy than it consumed, due to generation and transmission losses losses that Distributed Gen & CHP can dramatically reduce.
Sustainable Workplaces for Human Health and Productivity
Vivian Loftness, FAIA